Palm Oil in Lipid-Based Formulations and Drug Delivery Systems

Palm oil as part of a high-fat diet: advances and challenges, or possible risks of pathology?

Nutritional status disorders have the most significant impact on the development of cardiovascular and oncologic diseases; therefore, the interest in the study of palm oil as among the leading components of nutrition has been increasing. The data examined in this review were sourced from the Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed and PubMed Central, MEDLINE, CAPlus/SciFinder, and Embase databases; experts in the field; bibliographies; and abstracts from review analyses from the past 15 years. This review summarizes recent research data focusing on the quantitative and qualitative composition of nutrition of modern humans; concepts of the relationship between high-fat diets and disorders of insulin functioning and transport and metabolism of fatty acids; analyses of data regarding the palmitic acid (16:0) to oleic acid (18:1) ratio; and the effect of diet based on palm oil consumption on cardiovascular risk factors and lipid and lipoprotein levels. Several studies suggest a potential vector contributing to the transmission of maternal, high-fat-diet-induced, addictive-like behaviors and obesogenic phenotypes across generations. The relationship between cholesterol accumulation in lysosomes that may lead to lysosome dysfunction and inhibition of the autophagy process is analyzed, as is the progression of inflammatory diseases, atherosclerosis, nonalcoholic liver inflammation, and obesity with associated complications. Data are discussed from analyses of differences between rodent models and human population studies in the investigated different effects of palm oil consumption as a high-fat diet component. A conclusion is reached that the results cannot be generalized in human population studies because no similar effects were observed. Although there are numerous published reports, more studies are necessary to elucidate the complex regulatory mechanisms in digestive and nutrition processes, because there are great differences in lipoprotein profiles between rodents and humans, which makes it difficult to reproduce the pathology of many diseases caused by different types of the high-fat diet.

Medium-Chain Triacylglycerols (MCTs) and Their Fractions in Drug Delivery Systems : A Systematic Review

Medium-chain triacylglycerol (MCT) is a type of triacylglycerol that has six or seven to twelve carbon chains. It consists of three molecules of fatty acids attached to one molecule of glycerol. Drug delivery system (DDS) is defined as a formulation to distribute drugs into the human body. The unique properties of MCTs have garnered interest in using them as excipients in DDS. Even though there are many significant effects attributed to the use of MCTs, especially in modulating the rate of drug delivery in various DDS, they are all limited and intermittent. This warrants a detailed summary of the previous studies on the use of MCTs in various DDS. Therefore, this review focuses on presenting a systematic review of previous studies on the use of MCTs in the last six years and explores the types and effects of MCTs on DDS that employ various types of delivery routes. A systematic search through PubMed, Science Direct and Scopus was performed. Keywords like "medium-chain triglycerides", "medium-chain fatty acids", "medium-chain triglycerides and their fractions", "medium-chain fatty acids and their fractions", "MCTs", "MCFA", "in drug delivery", "in drug delivery system" and their combinations were used. The synonyms of the words were also used to extend the search. A total of 17 articles that met the inclusion criteria were identified. Findings from this review have identified the several MCTs and their fractions used in DDS that employed the oral/enteral, topical, transdermal, parenteral, and pulmonary routes of drug delivery. The review also highlights that the usage of MCTs in DDS results in a better transportation of drugs into the human body.

Resveratrol-Loaded Attalea funifera Oil Organogel Nanoparticles: A Potential Nanocarrier against A375 Human Melanoma Cells

This study aimed to evaluate Attalea funifera seed oil with or without resveratrol entrapped in organogel nanoparticles in vitro against A375 human melanoma tumor cells. Organogel nanoparticles with seed oil (SON) or with resveratrol entrapped in the seed oil (RSON) formed functional organogel nanoparticles that showed a particle size <100 nm, polydispersity index <0.3, negative zeta potential, and maintenance of electrical conductivity. The resveratrol entrapment efficiency in RSON was 99 ± 1%. The seed oil and SON showed no cytotoxicity against human non-tumor cells or tumor cells. Resveratrol at 50 μg/mL was cytotoxic for non-tumor cells, and was cytotoxic for tumor cells at 25 μg/mL. Resveratrol entrapped in RSON showed a decrease in cytotoxicity against non-tumor cells and cytotoxic against tumor cells at 50 μg/mL. Thus, SON is a potential new platform for the delivery of resveratrol with selective cytotoxic activity in the treatment of melanoma.

Nanoemulsion curcumin injection showed significant anti-inflammatory activities on carrageenan-induced paw edema in Sprague-Dawley rats

Medicinal plants are candidates for the discovery of potential new anti-inflammatory agents. Curcumin is the active compound found in turmeric root, which has high anti-inflammatory activity. One of the limitations of curcumin as a therapeutic agent is its low solubility in water and extensive first-pass effect metabolism. The aim of this study was to formulate curcumin nanoemulsion for parenteral injection. We prepared curcumin nanoemulsions with a homogenizer using three surfactant concentrations (1.8%; 2.4%; and 3%) and two curcumin concentrations (1% and 3%). Formulas were evaluated for droplet diameter, polydispersity index, zeta potential, viscosity, pH, entrapment efficiency (EE), osmolality, sterility, and morphology. The nanoemulsion containing 1% curcumin and 3% surfactant (F3) demonstrated good stability. Curcumin nanoemulsions at 20 and 40 mg/kg doses showed anti-inflammatory activity on carrageenan-induced paw edema in male Sprague-Dawley rats. These two doses inhibited paw edema by 33% and 56% respectively at 5 h after carrageenan induction. Inhibition of edema volume by curcumin nanoemulsion at a dose of 40 mg/kg did not show a significant difference (P > 0.05) compared to the activity of the standard drug ketorolac at a dose of 2.7 mg/kg. We conclude that curcumin nanoemulsion has anti-inflammatory activity and can be a promising anti-inflammatory agent.

Natural products in drug discovery and development: Synthesis and medicinal perspective of leonurine

Natural products, those molecules derived from nature, have been used by humans for thousands of years to treat ailments and diseases. More recently, these compounds have inspired chemists to use natural products as structural templates in the development of new drug molecules. One such compound is leonurine, a molecule isolated and characterized in the tissues of Herb leonuri. This molecule has received attention from scientists in recent years due to its potent anti-oxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory properties. More recently researchers have shown leonurine to be useful in the treatment of cardiovascular and nervous system diseases. Like other natural products such as paclitaxel and artemisinin, the historical development of leonurine as a therapeutic is very interesting. Therefore, this review provided an overview of natural product discovery, through to the development of a potential new drug. Content will summarize known plant sources, the pathway used in the synthesis of leonurine, and descriptions of leonurine’s pharmacological properties in mammalian systems.

Untargeted muscle tissue metabolites profiling in young, adult, and old rats supplemented with tocotrienol-rich fraction

The greatest significant influence on human life span and health is inevitable ageing. One of the distinguishing characteristics of ageing is the gradual decrease of muscle mass and physical function. There has been growing evidence that tocotrienol can guard against age-associated chronic diseases and metabolic disorders. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) on muscle metabolomes and metabolic pathways in ageing Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. Three months, 9 months, and 21 months old male SD rats were divided into control and treated groups with 10 rats per group. Rats in control and treated groups were given 60 mg/kg body weight/day of palm olein and 60 mg/kg body weight/day of TRF, respectively, via oral gavage for 3 months. Muscle performance was assessed at 0 and 3 months of treatment by measuring muscle strength and function. Our results showed that TRF treatment caused a significant increase in the swimming time of the young rats. Comparison in the control groups showed that metabolites involved in lipid metabolisms such as L-palmitoyl carnitine and decanoyl carnitine were increased in ageing. In contrast, several metabolites, such as 3-phosphoglyceric acid, aspartic acid and aspartyl phenylalanine were decreased. These findings indicated that muscle metabolomes involved in lipid metabolism were upregulated in aged rats. In contrast, the metabolites involved in energy and amino acid metabolism were significantly downregulated. Comparison in the TRF-supplemented groups showed an upregulation of metabolites involved in energy and amino acid metabolism. Metabolites such as N6-methyl adenosine, spermine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, aspartic acid, histidine, and N-acetyl neuraminic acid were up-regulated, indicating promotion of amino acid synthesis and muscle regeneration. Energy metabolism was also improved in adult and old rats with TRF supplementation as indicated by the upregulation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and glycerol 3-phosphate compared to the control group. In conclusion, the mechanism underlying the changes in skeletal muscle mass and functions in ageing was related to carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid metabolism. Tocotrienol supplementation showed beneficial effects in alleviating energy and amino acid synthesis that may promote the regeneration and renewal of skeletal muscle in ageing rats.

Balancing functional and health benefits of food products formulated with palm oil as oil sources

Palm oil (PO) is widely utilised in the food industry and consumed in large quantities by humans. Owing to its bioactive components, such as fatty acids, carotenoids, vitamin E, and phenolic compounds, PO has been utilised for generations. However, public concern about their adverse effects on human health is growing. A literature search was conducted to identify fractionated palm oil processing techniques, proof of their health advantages, and potential food applications. Refined palm oil (RPO) is made from crude palm oil (CPO) and can be fractionated into palm olein (POl) and palm stearin (PS). Fractional crystallisation, dry fractionation, and solvent fractionation are the three basic fractionation procedures used in the PO industry. The composition of triacylglycerols and fatty acids in refined and fractionated palm oil and other vegetable oils is compared to elucidate the triacylglycerols and fatty acids that may be important in product development. It is well proven that RPO, POl, and PS extends the oil's shelf life in the food business. These oils have a more significant saturated fat content and antioxidant compounds than some vegetable oils, such as olive and coconut oils, making them more stable. Palm olein and stearin are also superior shortening agents and frying mediums for baking goods and meals. Furthermore, when ingested modestly daily, palm oils, especially RPO and POl, provide health benefits such as cardioprotective, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and antithrombotic effects. Opportunities exist for fractionated palm oil to become a fat substitute; however, nutrition aspects need to be considered in further developing the market.

Formula Development of Red Palm (Elaeis guineensis) Fruit Extract Loaded with Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Containing Creams and Its Anti-Aging Efficacy in Healthy Volunteers

Palm fruits (Elaeis guineensis) comprise antioxidants that can be used as skin care agents. This study developed a cosmeceutical cream containing E. guineensis extract, loaded with solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), and assessed its efficacy on female volunteers. The E. guineensis extract exhibited a good antioxidant activity with high levels of vitamin E, β-carotene, and palmitic acid. Day and night creams containing E. guineensis fruit extract, loaded with SLNs, were formulated and exhibited acceptable physical characteristics and good stability. Subsequently, their clinical efficacy and safety were evaluated on female volunteers. Both creams were non-irritating and had good cutaneous compatibility. Skin hydration, transepidermal water loss (TEWL), skin elasticity, melanin index, and skin texture were measured before and 30 min after the first application, as well as after 7, 14, and 30 days of daily application. A satisfactory survey was implemented using a questionnaire, and volunteer satisfaction scores were high for the product’s performance. Overall, the results showed that skin hydration, TEWL, cutaneous elasticity, and melanin index were improved, compared to the baseline data, after 30 days. Thus, the formulated facial day and night creams made the skin moist, reduced wrinkles, increased elasticity, and cleared the skin to the consumers’ satisfaction.

The role of gambeir filtrate and red palm oil in the formation of canna starch based-functional edible film

This study aims to analyze the role of gambier filtrate and red palm oil in the formation of functional edible film and to determine whether the gambier filtrate and red palm oil are synergistic or antagonistic in the formation of functional edible films. The study design used a factorial randomized block design with two treatment factors and each treatment consisted of three levels, namely: gambier filtrate concentration (A): 20, 30, and 40% (v/v) as well as red palm oil concentration (B): 1.2 and 3% (v/v). The observed parameters were thickness, elongation percentage, water vapor transmission rate, antioxidant activity, and antibacterial activity. Gambier filtrate and red palm oil were capable to improve the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of canna starch-based edible film. Gambier filtrate plays a role in increasing the elongation percentage, thickness, and water vapor transmission rate of edible film.

Untargeted serum metabolites profiling in high-fat diet mice supplemented with enhanced palm tocotrienol-rich fraction using UHPLC-MS

Excessive high fat dietary intake promotes risk of developing non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and predisposed with oxidative stress. Palm based tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) has been reported able to ameliorate oxidative stress but exhibited poor bioavailability. Thus, we investigated whether an enhanced formulation of TRF in combination with palm kernel oil (medium-chain triglycerides) (ETRF) could ameliorate the effect of high-fat diet (HFD) on leptin-deficient male mice. All the animals were divided into HFD only (HFD group), HFD supplemented with ETRF (ETRF group) and HFD supplemented with TRF (TRF group) and HFD supplemented with PKO (PKO group). After 6 weeks, sera were collected for untargeted metabolite profiling using UHPLC-Orbitrap MS. Univariate analysis unveiled alternation in metabolites for bile acids, amino acids, fatty acids, sphingolipids, and alkaloids. Bile acids, lysine, arachidonic acid, and sphingolipids were downregulated while xanthine and hypoxanthine were upregulated in TRF and ETRF group. The regulation of these metabolites suggests that ETRF may promote better fatty acid oxidation, reduce oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory metabolites and acts as anti-inflammatory in fatty liver compared to TRF. Metabolites regulated by ETRF also provide insight of its role in fatty liver. However, further investigation is warranted to identify the mechanisms involved.

Intranasal artesunate-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers: A convenient alternative to parenteral formulations for the treatment of severe and cerebral malaria

Early treatment with parenteral antimalarials is key in preventing deaths and complications associated with severe and cerebral malaria. This can be challenging in 'hard-to-reach' areas in Africa where transit time to hospitals with facilities to administer drugs parenterally can be more than 6 h. Consequently, the World Health Organization has recommended the use of artesunate (ATS) suppositories for emergency treatment of patients, however, this treatment is only for children under 6 years. The intranasal route (INR) can provide a safe and effective alternative to parenteral and rectal routes for patients of all ages; thus, reducing delays to the initiation of treatment. Hence, we designed ATS-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) for intranasal administration. ATS-NLCs were formulated using varying concentrations of lipid matrices made up of solidified reverse micellar solutions (SRMS) comprising a 1:2 ratio of Phospholipon ® 90H and lipids (Softisan ® 154 or Compritol ®). ATS-NLCs were spherical, and the small sizes of ATS-NLCs obtained for some formulations (76.56 ± 1.04 nm) is an indication that ATS-NLCs can pass through the nasal mucosa and reach the brain or systemic circulation. Encapsulation efficiency of ATS in NLCs was ≥70% for all formulations. ATS-NLCs achieved up to 40% in vitro drug release in 1 h, while ex vivo permeation studies revealed that formulating ATS as NLCs enhanced permeation through pig nasal mucosa better than drug solution. Most importantly, the activity and reduction in parasitaemia [in mice infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA in a murine cerebral malaria model] by ATS-NLCs administered through the INR (54.70%, 33.28%) was comparable to intramuscular administration (58.80%, 42.18%), respectively. Therefore, intranasal administration of NLCs of ATS has great potentials to serve as a satisfactory alternative to parenteral administration for the treatment of severe and cerebral malaria in both adults and children in remote areas of sub-Saharan Africa.

Upregulation of hepatic autophagy under nutritional ketosis

Many of the metabolic effects evoked by the ketogenic diet mimic the actions of fasting and the benefits of the ketogenic diet are often attributed to these similarities. Since fasting is a potent autophagy inductor in vivo and in vitro it has been hypothesized that the ketogenic diet may upregulate autophagy. The aim of the present study was to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the influence of the ketogenic diet on the hepatic autophagy. C57BL/6N male mice were fed with two different ketogenic chows composed of fat of either animal or plant origin for 4 weeks. To gain some insight into the time frame for the induction of autophagy on the ketogenic diet, we performed a short-term experiment in which animals were fed with ketogenic diets for only 24 or 48 h. The results showed that autophagy is upregulated in the livers of animals fed with the ketogenic diet. Moreover, the size of the observed effect was likely dependent on the diet composition. Subsequently, the markers of regulatory pathways that may link ketogenic diet action to autophagy were measured, i.e., the activity of mTORC1, activation of AMPK, and the levels of SIRT1, p53, and FOXO3. Overall, observed treatment-specific effects including the upregulation of SIRT1 and downregulation of FOXO3 and p53. Finally, a GC/MS analysis of the fatty acid composition of animals' livers and the chows was performed in order to obtain an idea about the presence of specific compounds that may shape the effects of ketogenic diets on autophagy.

Protein-Stabilized Palm-Oil-in-Water Emulsification Using Microchannel Array Devices under Controlled Temperature

Microchannel (MC) emulsification for the preparation of monodisperse oil-in-water (O/W) and water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions containing palm oil as the oil phase was investigated for application as basic material solid/semi-solid lipid microspheres for delivery carriers of nutrients and drugs. Emulsification was characterized by direct observation of droplet generation under various operation conditions, as such, the effects of type and concentration of emulsifiers, emulsification temperature, MC structure, and flow rate of to-be-dispersed phase on droplet generation via MC were investigated. Sodium caseinate (SC) was confirmed as the most suitable emulsifier among the examined emulsifiers, and monodisperse O/W and W/O/W emulsions stabilized by it were successfully obtained with 20 to 40 µm mean diameter (d_m) using different types of MCs.

Harnessing pongamia shell hydrolysate for triacylglycerol agglomeration by novel oleaginous yeast Rhodotorula pacifica INDKK

BACKGROUND

To meet the present transportation demands and solve food versus fuel issue, microbial lipid-derived biofuels are gaining attention worldwide. This study is focussed on high-throughput screening of oleaginous yeast by microwave-aided Nile red spectrofluorimetry and exploring pongamia shell hydrolysate (PSH) as a feedstock for lipid production using novel oleaginous yeast Rhodotorula pacifica INDKK.

RESULTS

A new oleaginous yeast R. pacifica INDKK was identified and selected for microbial lipid production. R. pacifica INDKK produced maximum 12.8 ± 0.66 g/L of dry cell weight and 6.78 ± 0.4 g/L of lipid titre after 120 h of growth, showed high tolerance to pre-treatment-derived inhibitors such as 5-hydroxymethyl furfural (5-HMF), (2 g/L), furfural (0.5 g/L) and acetic acid (0.5 g/L), and ability to assimilate C3, C5 and C6 sugars. Interestingly, R. pacifica INDKK showed higher lipid accumulation when grown in alkali-treated saccharified PSH (AS-PSH) (0.058 ± 0.006 g/L/h) as compared to acid-treated detoxified PSH (AD-PSH) (0.037 ± 0.006 g/L/h) and YNB medium (0.055 ± 0.003 g/L/h). The major fatty acid constituents are oleic, palmitic, linoleic and linolenic acids with an estimated cetane number (CN) of about 56.7, indicating the good quality of fuel.

CONCLUSION

These results suggested that PSH and R. pacifica INDKK could be considered as potential feedstock for sustainable biodiesel production.

An Overview of the Oil Palm Industry: Challenges and Some Emerging Opportunities for Nanotechnology Development

The increase in the world’s oil demand due to the rise of the global population urges more research into the production of sustainable vegetable oilseeds, among which palm oil is the most suitable candidate as it is the most efficient oilseed crop in the world. In an effort to drive the oil palm industry in the areas of food safety and security nanotechnology could offer a sustainable alternative. However, the utilization of nanotechnology in the oil palm industry is still limited. In this review, we aim to encourage the researchers to fully utilize nanotechnology as an alternative solution to tackle the challenges faced by the oil palm industry. Moreover, we also aim to highlight the opportunities for nanotechnology development in oil palm-based related research. The major points are as follows: (1) Nanosensing enables real-time monitoring of plantation status and crop progression, including soil, water and nutrient management, early pest/disease detection, and the spreading of pests/diseases. The use of nanosensing conveniently extends into advanced breeding topics, such as the development of disease-tolerant plants; (2) Nanotechnology could be the answer for the development of integrated management of pest and disease. Active agricultural ingredients can be entrapped or encapsulated into nanocarrier systems to improve their solubility, stability, enhance their efficient delivery to site-specific targets, with longer shelf life, and consequently improved efficacy; (3) Valuable nanomaterials can be isolated and generated from oil palm biomass waste. The utilization of oil palm biomass waste could overcome the issue of the massive production of waste in the oil palm industry and palm oil mills, where oil only accounts for 10% of the biomass, while 90% is comprised of the generated biowastes. (4) Palm oil can be utilized as a green alternative as a capping and stabilizing agent in the biosynthesis of metallic and non-metallic nanoparticles. In addition, nanoemulsion formulations using palm oil in drug delivery systems offer advantages such as low toxicity, enhance bioavailability and solubility of the drugs, apart from being inexpensive and environmentally friendly.

Effect of vegetable oils on the experimental infection of mice with Trypanosoma congolense

Vegetable oils are frequently used as solvents for lipophilic materials; accordingly, the effects of their components should be considered in animal experiments. In this study, the effects of various vegetable oils on the course of Trypanosoma congolense infection were examined in mice. C57BL/6J mice were orally administered four kinds of oils (i.e., coconut oil, olive oil, high oleic safflower oil, and high linoleic safflower oil) with different fatty acid compositions and infected with T. congolense IL-3000. Oil-treated mice infected with T. congolense showed significantly higher survival rates and lower parasitemia than those of control mice. Notably, coconut oil, which mainly consists of saturated fatty acids, delayed the development of parasitemia at the early stage of infection. These results indicated that vegetable oil intake could affect T. congolense infection in mice. These findings have important practical implications; for example, they suggest the potential effectiveness of vegetable oils as a part of the regular animal diet for controlling tropical diseases and indicate that vegetable oils are not suitable solvents for studies of the efficacy of lipophilic agents against T. congolense.