Citrus limonL.-Derived Nanovesicles Show an Inhibitory Effect on Cell Growth in p53-Inactivated Colorectal Cancer Cells via the Macropinocytosis Pathway

Plant Derived Exosome-Like Nanoparticles and Their Therapeutic Applications in Glucolipid Metabolism Diseases

Plant derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are membrane structures isolated from different plants, which encapsulate many active substances such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which exert a substantial influence on many physiological processes such as plant growth and development, self-defense, and tissue repair. Compared with synthetic nanoparticles and mammalian cell derived exosomes (MDEs), PELNs have lower toxicity and immunogenicity and possess excellent biocompatibility. The intrinsic properties of PELNs establish a robust basis for their applications in the therapeutic management of a diverse array of pathologies. It is worth mentioning that PELNs have good biological targeting, which promotes them to load and deliver drugs to specific tissues, offering a superior development pathway for the construction of a new drug delivery system (DDS). Glucose and lipid metabolism is a vital life process for the body's energy and material supply. The maintenance of homeostatic balance provides a fundamental basis for the body's ability to adjust to modifications in both its internal and external environment. Conversely, homeostatic imbalance can lead to a range of severe metabolic disorders. This work provides a comprehensive overview of the extraction and representation methods of PELNs, their transportation and storage characteristics, and their applications as therapeutic agents for direct treatment and as delivery vehicles to enhance nutrition and health. Additionally, it examines the therapeutic efficacy and practical applications of PELNs in addressing abnormalities in glucose and lipid metabolism. Finally, combined with the above contents, the paper summarizes and provides a conceptual framework for the better application of PELNs in clinical disease treatment.

Colon health benefits of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles via modulating gut microbiota and immunity

Exosomes are nanoscale particles with a lipid bilayer membrane that were first identified in mammalian cells. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) share structural and molecular similarities with mammalian exosomes, including lipids, proteins, microRNA (miRNA), and plant-derived metabolites. Owing to their unique characteristics, such as outstanding stability, low immunogenicity, high biocompatibility, and sustainability, PELNs have emerged as promising natural bioactive agents with the capacity for cross-kingdom cellular regulation. Dietary supplementation with PELNs, particularly from fruits and vegetables, has demonstrated health benefits. An increasing number of studies have indicated the beneficial effects of PELNs on colon health. This review summarizes the isolation and characterization of PELNs, and their stability, uptake, and distribution after oral ingestion. Furthermore, this review emphasizes the interactions between PELNs, gut microbiota, and the gut immune system, including the uptake of PELNs by gut microbiota, modulation of gut bacteria metabolism, and immune responses by PELNs. Additionally, the applications of PELNs as bioactive components and drug carriers targeting the colon are reviewed. In summary, PELNs represent a versatile and natural approach to improve colon health, with potential applications in both therapeutic and preventive healthcare strategies.

Advancing functional foods: a systematic analysis of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles and their health-promoting properties

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PDENs), emerging as novel bioactive agents, exhibit significant potential in food science and nutritional health. These nanoparticles, enriched with plant-specific biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and secondary metabolites, demonstrate unique cross-species regulatory capabilities, enabling interactions with mammalian cells and gut microbiota. PDENs enhance nutrient bioavailability by protecting sensitive compounds during digestion, modulate metabolic pathways through miRNA-mediated gene regulation, and exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. For instance, grape-derived PDENs reduce plasma triglycerides in high-fat diets, while ginger-derived nanoparticles alleviate colitis by downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, PDENs serve as natural drug carriers, with applications in delivering therapeutic agents like doxorubicin and paclitaxel. Despite these advancements, challenges remain in standardizing extraction methods (ultracentrifugation, immunoaffinity), ensuring stability during food processing and storage, and evaluating long-term safety. Current research highlights the need for optimizing lyophilization techniques and understanding interactions between PDENs and food matrices. Furthermore, while PDENs show promise in functional food development-such as fortified beverages and probiotic formulations-their clinical translation requires rigorous pharmacokinetic studies and regulatory clarity. This review synthesizes existing knowledge on PDENs' composition, biological activities, and applications, while identifying gaps in scalability, stability, and safety assessments. Future directions emphasize interdisciplinary collaboration to harness PDENs' potential in combating metabolic disorders, enhancing food functionality, and advancing personalized nutrition strategies.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles in tissue repair and regeneration

This article reviews plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs), and highlights their potential in regenerative medicine. Various extraction techniques, including ultracentrifugation and ultrafiltration, and their impact on ELN purity and yield were discussed. Characterization methods such as microscopy and particle analysis are found to play crucial roles in defining ELN properties. This review is focused on exploring the therapeutic potential of ELNs in tissue repair, immune regulation, and antioxidant activities. Further research and optimization methods for extraction of ELNs to realize clinical potential applications are necessary.

Tomato-derived extracellular vesicles increase intestinal zinc transportation by potentially down-regulating the expression of the metallothionein family

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have the ability to regulate physiological and pathological processes across species and have been shown to be present in plants. Tomatoes are one of the most widespread vegetables on the market and exhibit a broad range of health-promoting effects, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, little is known about the bioactivity of tomato-derived EVs. Here, we isolated EVs from tomatoes and explored their gene regulatory potential using array-based transcriptomics. Interestingly, using a differentiated Caco-2 monolayer model, tomato-derived EVs were shown to upregulate the transportation of zinc, which may involve the down-regulation of metallothionein proteins (MTs). Differentiated Caco-2 cells internalized tomato-derived EVs. Post-EV treatment the relative expression levels of MT-related mRNAs within the cells decreased by approximately threefold, accompanied by an approximately twofold reduction in intracellular zinc concentration. Additionally, the amount of secreted zinc in the basolateral medium increased by approximately threefold. Moreover, tomato-derived EV regulation of MT gene expression occurred only in differentiated epithelial cells. This effect was observed in differentiated Caco-2 and HIEC-6 cells, whereas no impact was seen on the MT gene in undifferentiated cells. This mechanistic study uniquely demonstrates the bioactivity of tomato-derived EVs, and for the first time, reveals the ability of plant-derived EVs to modify zinc regulation across the intestinal epithelia. This further suggests the potential of plant-derived EVs as functional food supplements in the future.

Investigation of In Vitro Anti-cancer and Apoptotic Potential of Onion-Derived Nanovesicles Against Prostate and Cervical Cancer Cell Lines

Plant-derived compounds have recently garnered significant interest in the field of medicine due to their rich repertoire of phytochemicals, which holds promise for exploring novel therapies to treat cancer. This study embarks on the first-time investigation of the anti-cancerous effect of onion-derived nanovesicles (ODNVs). ODNVs were isolated employing differential centrifugation followed by ultracentrifugation and subsequent characterization using dynamic light scattering (DLS), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Furthermore, we delineated the anti-cancerous effect of ODNVs on two cancer cell line models HeLa (cervical cancer) and PC-3 (prostate cancer) using MTT assay, DAPI-based DNA damage using immunofluorescence microscopy, colony formation assay, migration assay, cell cycle analysis, and evaluation of apoptosis using flow cytometry and western blotting. The findings revealed dose- and time-dependent anti-proliferative effects of ODNVs on both HeLa and PC3 cell lines, accompanied by selective cytotoxicity against cancer cells. Additional results highlighted that ODNVs prevented colony growth and induced S-phase cell cycle arrest. Apoptosis induction was evaluated through alterations in nuclear morphology and the number of apoptotic cells, which increased significantly after ODNV treatment in both cancer cell lines. Furthermore, annexin V/PI staining evaluation of apoptotic cells by flow cytometry demonstrated that ODNV treatment significantly increased the number of apoptotic cells in both PC-3 and HeLa cells. Finally, Western blot analysis indicated changes in apoptosis-related proteins including bcl-2, bax, and caspase-3, emphasizing that the anti-cancerous effect of ODNVs is attributed to the induction of apoptosis and suggests the  unexplored anti-cancerous potential of ODNVs.

Alternatives of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes as potential therapeutic platforms

With outstanding therapeutic potential in the tissue regeneration and anti-inflammation, mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-EXOs) have emerged as a prominent therapeutic in recent. However, poor production yield and reproducibility have remained as significant challenges of their practical applications. To surmount these challenges, various alternative materials with stem cell-like functions, have been recently investigated, however, there has been no comprehensive analysis in these alternatives so far. Here, we discuss the recent progress of alternatives of MSC-EXOs, including exosomes and exosome-like nanovesicles from various biological sources such as plants, milk, microbes, and body fluids. Moreover, we extensively compare each alternative by summarizing their unique functions and mode of actions to suggest the expected therapeutic target and future directions for developing alternatives for MSC-EXOs.

Exosome-like nanoparticles derived from fruits, vegetables, and herbs: innovative strategies of therapeutic and drug delivery

Over the past ten years, significant advancements have been made in exploring plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) for disease therapeutics and drug delivery. PELNs, as inherent nanoscale particles comprised of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and secondary metabolites, exhibit the capacity for cellular uptake by human cells. This intercellular interaction transcends biological boundaries, effectively influencing biological functions in animals. PELNs have outstanding biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, enhanced safety, and environmentally friendly sustainability. This article summarized the preparation methods and characteristics of PELNs. It provided a systematic review of the varied roles of PELNs derived from fruits, vegetables, and herbs in disease therapeutics and drug delivery. The challenges in their production and application were discussed, and future prospects in this rapidly evolving field were explored.

Plant-derived extracellular nanovesicles: a promising biomedical approach for effective targeting of triple negative breast cancer cells

Introduction: Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), a highly aggressive subtype accounting for 15-20% of all breast cancer cases, faces limited treatment options often accompanied by severe side effects. In recent years, natural extracellular nanovesicles derived from plants have emerged as promising candidates for cancer therapy, given their safety profile marked by non-immunogenicity and absence of inflammatory responses. Nevertheless, the potential anti-cancer effects of Citrus limon L.-derived extracellular nanovesicles (CLENs) for breast cancer treatment is still unexplored. Methods: In this study, we investigated the anti-cancer effects of CLENs on two TNBC cell lines (4T1 and HCC-1806 cells) under growth conditions in 2D and 3D culture environments. The cellular uptake efficiency of CLENs and their internalization mechanism were evaluated in both cells using confocal microscopy. Thereafter, we assessed the effect of different concentrations of CLENs on cell viability over time using a dual approach of Calcein-AM PI live-dead assay and CellTiter-Glo bioluminescence assay. We also examined the influence of CLENs on the migratory and evasion abilities of TNBC cells through wound healing and 3D Matrigel drop evasion assays. Furthermore, Western blot analysis was employed to investigate the effects of CLENs on the phosphorylation levels of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), and extracellular signal- regulated kinase (ERK) expression. Results: We found that CLENs were internalized by the cells via endocytosis, leading to decreased cell viability, in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Additionally, the migration and evasion abilities of TNBC cells were significantly inhibited under exposed to 40 and 80 μg/mL CLENs. Furthermore, down-regulated expression levels of phosphorylated phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), suggesting that the inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, migration, and evasion is driven by the inhibition of the PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways. Discussion: Overall, our results demonstrate the anti-tumor efficiency of CLENs against TNBC cells, highlighting their potential as promising natural anti-cancer agents for clinical applications in cancer treatment.

Unlocking the Medicinal Potential of Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: current Progress and Future Perspectives

Botanical preparations for herbal medicine have received more and more attention from drug researchers, and the extraction of active ingredients and their successful clinical application have become an important direction of drug research in major pharmaceutical companies, but the complexity of extracts, multiple side effects, and significant individual differences have brought many difficulties to the clinical application of herbal preparations. It is noteworthy that extracellular vesicles as active biomolecules extracted from medicinal plants are believed to be useful for the treatment of a variety of diseases, including cancer, inflammation, regenerative-restorative and degenerative diseases, which may provide a new direction for the clinical utilization of herbal preparations. In this review, we sort out recent advances in medicinal plant extracellular vesicles and discuss their potential as disease therapeutics. Finally, future challenges and research directions for the clinical translation of medicinal plant extracellular vesicles are also discussed, and we expect that continued development based on medicinal plant extracellular vesicles will facilitate the clinical application of herbal preparations.

Plant-derived nanovesicles offer a promising avenue for anti-aging interventions

Over the past few years, the study of plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) has emerged as a hot topic of discussion and research in the scientific community. This remarkable interest stems from their potential role in facilitating intercellular communication and their unique ability to deliver biologically active components, including proteins, lipids, and miRNAs, to recipient cells. This fascinating ability to act as a molecular courier has opened up an entirely new dimension in our understanding of plant biology. The field of research focusing on the potential applications of PDNVs is still in its nascent stages. However, it has already started gaining traction due to the growing interest in its possible use in various branches of biotechnology and medicine. Their unique properties and versatile applications offer promising future research and development prospects in these fields. Despite the significant progress in our understanding, many unanswered questions and mysteries surround the mechanisms by which PDNVs function and their potential applications. There is a dire need for further extensive research to elucidate these mechanisms and explore the full potential of these fascinating vesicles. As the technology at our disposal advances and our understanding of PDNVs deepens, it is beyond doubt that PDNVs will continue to be a subject of intense research in anti-aging therapeutics. This comprehensive review is designed to delve into the fascinating and multifaceted world of PDNV-based research, particularly focusing on how these nanovesicles can be applied to anti-aging therapeutics.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: A New Revolutionization of Modern Healthy Diets and Biomedical Applications

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) have recently emerged as a promising area of research due to their potential health benefits and biomedical applications. Produced by various plant species, these EVs contain diverse bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Increasing in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that PDEVs have inherent pharmacological activities that affect cellular processes, exerting anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer activities, which can potentially contribute to disease therapy and improve human health. Additionally, PDEVs have shown potential as efficient and biocompatible drug delivery vehicles in treating various diseases. However, while PDEVs serve as a potential rising star in modern healthy diets and biomedical applications, further research is needed to address their underlying knowledge gaps, especially the lack of standardized protocols for their isolation, identification, and large-scale production. Furthermore, the safety and efficacy of PDEVs in clinical applications must be thoroughly evaluated. In this review, we concisely discuss current knowledge in the PDEV field, including their characteristics, biomedical applications, and isolation methods, to provide an overview of the current state of PDEV research. Finally, we discuss the challenges regarding the current and prospective issues for PDEVs. This review is expected to provide new insights into healthy diets and biomedical applications of vegetables and fruits, inspiring new advances in natural food-based science and technology.

Recent insights into the nutritional immunomodulation of cancer-related microRNAs

Cancer is the most common cause of death worldwide, following cardiovascular diseases. Cancer is a multifactorial disease and many reasons such as physical, chemical, biological, and lifestyle-related factors. Nutrition, which is one of the various factors that play a role in the prevention, development, and treatment of many types of cancer, affects the immune system, which is characterized by disproportionate pro-inflammatory signaling in cancer. Studies investigating the molecular mechanisms of this effect have shown that foods rich in bioactive compounds, such as green tea, olive oil, turmeric, and soybean play a significant role in positively changing the expression of miRNAs involved in the regulation of genes associated with oncogenic/tumor-suppressing pathways. In addition to these foods, some diet models may change the expression of specific cancer-related miRNAs in different ways. While Mediterranean diet has been associated with anticancer effects, a high-fat diet, and a methyl-restricted diet are considered to have negative effects. This review aims to discuss the effects of specific foods called "immune foods," diet models, and bioactive components on cancer by changing the expression of miRNAs in the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Plant and mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles: a new therapeutic approach for the future

Background: In recent years, extracellular vesicles have been recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication through the transfer of active biomolecules (proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) across the plant and animal kingdoms and have considerable roles in several physiological and pathological mechanisms, showing great promise as new therapeutic strategies for a variety of pathologies. Methods: In this study, we carefully reviewed the numerous articles published over the last few decades on the general knowledge of extracellular vesicles, their application in the therapy of various pathologies, and their prospects as an approach for the future. Results: The recent discovery and characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) of diverse origins and biogenesis have altered the current paradigm of intercellular communication, opening up new diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. Research into these EVs released by plant and mammalian cells has revealed their involvement in a number of physiological and pathological mechanisms, such as embryonic development, immune response, tissue regeneration, and cancer. They are also being studied as potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis and vectors for drug delivery. Conclusion: Nanovesicles represent powerful tools for intercellular communication and the transfer of bioactive molecules. Their molecular composition and functions can vary according to their origin (plant and mammalian), so their formation, composition, and biological roles open the way to therapeutic applications in a variety of pathologies, which is arousing growing interest in the scientific community. Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03608631.

Preventive and ameliorative effects of potato exosomes on UVB‑induced photodamage in keratinocyte HaCaT cells

Exosomes isolated from potato (Solanum tuberosum) exhibit the biophysical characteristics of exosomes observed in mammalian cells and microorganisms, as determined by dynamic light scattering analysis and transmission electron microscopy. In the present study, it was shown that potato exosomes (ExoPs) can penetrate keratinocyte HaCaT cells, as determined by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. In addition, ExoPs can suppress the expression of the collagen‑destroying enzymes MMP1, 2 and 9, and the inflammatory cytokines IL6 and TNF‑α, while inducing the expression of glutathione S‑transferase α 4, a cellular detoxifying enzyme, as revealed by reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR. Furthermore, ExoPs promote HaCaT cell proliferation, exhibit in vitro antioxidant activity against the free radical 2,2‑diphenyl‑β‑picrylhydrazyl, and protect cells from hydrogen peroxide‑induced cytotoxicity. ExoPs can also minimize the induction of photodamage initiated by ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiation, and have the tendency to cure the photodamage already incurred on cells by UVB irradiation. ExoPs also prevent collagen degradation as observed in the culture media of UVB‑irradiated HaCaT cells. Collectively, ExoPs may protect and ameliorate photodamage in keratinocyte HaCaT cells.

Ginger: a representative material of herb-derived exosome-like nanoparticles

Edible plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) provide numerous benefits, including high yield, low cost, ethical compatibility, and multiple health benefits, which enable them to address technical constraints associated with mammalian nanoparticles. Herbs, known for their abundant bioactive components, are considered the primary source of natural medicines within the plant kingdom. Recently, a number of herbaceous sources have been investigated for the isolation and functionality of exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs). However, they are commonly referred to as PELNs, and their distinct pharmacological properties are overlooked. In this review, these herb-derived ELNs are designated as HELNs, a novel herbal product that may also exhibit superior pharmacological activity compared to other types of PELNs. Among the documented HELNs, ginger-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (GELNs) are the most extensively studied. This review employs GELNs as an exemplar to delineate the process of extraction and purification, together with their physical and biochemical characteristics and therapeutic potential. The aim of this review is to promote the development and application of HELNs, and future research is encouraged to uncover their additional properties, extending beyond those of GELNs.

Dietary-Derived Exosome-like Nanoparticles as Bacterial Modulators: Beyond MicroRNAs

There is increasing evidence that food is an important factor that influences the composition of the gut microbiota. Usually, all the attention has been focused on nutrients such as lipids, proteins, vitamins, or polyphenols. However, a pivotal role in these processes has been linked to dietary-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (DELNs). While food macro- and micronutrient composition are largely well established, there is considerable interest in these DELNs and their cargoes. In this sense, traditionally, all the attention was focused on the proteins or miRNAs contained in these vesicles. However, it has been shown that DELNs would also carry other bioactive molecules with a key role in regulating biochemical pathways and/or interactions with the host's gut microbiome affecting intracellular communication. Due to the scarce literature, it is necessary to compile the current knowledge about the antimicrobial capacity of DELNs and its possible molecular mechanisms that will serve as a starting point. For this reason, in this review, we highlight the impact of DENLs on different bacteria species modulating the host gut microbiota or antibacterial properties. It could be concluded that DELNs, isolated from both plant and animal foods, exert gut microbiota modulation. However, the presence of miRNA in the vesicle cargoes is not the only one responsible for this effect. Lipids present in the DELNs membrane or small molecules packed in may also be responsible for apoptosis signaling, inhibition, or growth promoters.

Species-Specific Plant-Derived Nanoparticle Characteristics

Medicinal and agricultural plants contain numerous phytochemical compounds with pronounced biological effects on human health. They are known to encapsulate most of their characteristic bioactive compounds within membranous elements of intercellular communication known as exosomes. These nanovesicles serve as capsules protecting their biological activity and improving their penetration into the tissue. Therefore, the application of plant exosome preparations holds considerable potential for cosmetics and pharmacy, but the quality and consistency of plant material for exosome isolation is of critical importance. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to evaluate yield, size distribution patterns, and antioxidant properties between nanovesicle preparations of the following portfolio of medicinal plants: Kalanchoe daigremontiana, Artemisia absinthium, Hypericum perforatum, Silybum marianum, Chelidonium majus, and Scutellaria baicalensis. Results showed that nanoparticle yield, size distribution, and antioxidant activities were specific to plant species. Compared to other plants, nanoparticle preparations from Artemisia absinthium were distinguished by remarkably higher yield and concentration, while the highest antioxidant activity of plant-derived nanoparticle preparations per weight and per particle was determined to occur in Chelidonium majus and Hypericum perforatum samples. Results showed no significant correlation in DPPH (2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical scavenging activity and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) between plant material and nanoparticle preparations. More detailed biochemical analysis of exosome preparations is necessary to validate their biological activity and its relation to source plant cells.

Delivery of Corn-Derived Nanoparticles with Anticancer Activity to Tumor Tissues by Modification with Polyethylene Glycol for Cancer Therapy

PURPOSE

We recently reported that intratumoral injection of corn-derived nanoparticles (cNPs) affords anticancer activity in tumor-bearing mice. To increase their applicability in cancer therapy, we examined the tissue distribution of cNPs after intravenous injection in mice, modified their surface with polyethylene glycol (PEG) to improve tumor delivery, and examined tissue distribution and anticancer activity of PEG-cNPs in tumor-bearing mice.

METHODS

N-(Carbonyl-methoxypolyethyleneglycol2000)-1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DSPE-PEG) was added to cNPs by sonication to obtain PEG-cNPs, and the ratio of DSPE-PEG to cNPs was optimized by evaluating the modification efficiency. cNPs and PEG-cNPs were labeled with fluorescent dyes DiO or DiR, and their tissue distribution was subsequently examined after intravenous administration to mice. Finally, we determined the anticancer activity and toxicity of PEG-cNPs.

RESULTS

No detectable fluorescence intensity was observed in mouse serum after intravenous DiR-cNP injection. DSPE-PEG was successfully modified into cNPs, and a PEG:cNPs ratio of 50 was determined as optimal for preparing PEG-cNPs, based on their size and zeta potential. DiO-PEG-cNPs exhibited significantly higher serum concentrations and lower liver accumulation than DiO-cNPs. Moreover, DiR-PEG-cNPs accumulated in tumor tissues of colon26 tumor-bearing mice. Repeated intravenous PEG-cNP injections significantly retarded tumor growth, with no significant hepatotoxicity or nephrotoxicity.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these results indicate that controlling the tissue distribution of cNPs via PEG modification on their surface can be a valuable strategy for developing intravenously injectable cNPs for cancer therapy.

Emergence of Edible Plant-Derived Nanovesicles as Functional Food Components and Nanocarriers for Therapeutics Delivery: Potentials in Human Health and Disease

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a highly heterogeneous population of membranous particles that are secreted by almost all types of cells across different domains of life, including plants. In recent years, studies on plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs) showed that they could modulate metabolic reactions of the recipient cells, affecting (patho)physiology with health benefits in a trans-kingdom manner. In addition to its bioactivity, PDNV has advantages over conventional nanocarriers, making its application promising for therapeutics delivery. Here, we discuss the characteristics of PDNV and highlight up-to-date pre-clinical and clinical evidence, focusing on therapeutic application.