Enhanced Luminescent Detection of Circulating Tumor Cells by a 3D Printed Immunomagnetic Concentrator

Technological Advancement and Trend in Selective Bioanalytical Sample Extraction through State of the Art 3-D Printing Techniques Aiming 'Sorbent Customization as per need'

The inherent complexity of biological matrices and presence of several interfering substances in biological samples make them unsuitable for direct analysis. An effective sample preparation technique assists in analyte enrichment, improving selectivity and sensitivity of bioanalytical method. Because of several key benefits of employing 3D printed sorbent in sample extraction, it has recently gained popularity across a variety of industries. Applications for 3D printing in the field of bioanalytical research have grown recently, particularly in the areas of miniaturization, (bio)sensing, sample preparation, and separation sciences. Due to the high expense of the solid phase microextraction cartridge, researcher approaches in-lab production of sorbent material for the extraction of analyte from biological samples. Owing to its distinct advantages such as low costs, automation capabilities, capacity to produce products in a variety of shapes, and reduction of tedious steps of sample preparation, 3D printed sorbents are gaining increased attention in the field of bioanalysis. It is also reported to offer high selectivity and assist in achieving a much lower limit of detection. In this review, we have discussed current advancements in different types of 3D printed sorbents, production methods, and their applications in the field of bioanalytical sample preparation.

A review on the surface modification of materials for 3D-printed diagnostic devices

Three-dimensional (3D) printing in tissue engineering and biosensing of analytes by using biocompatible materials or modifying surface structures is an upcoming area of study. This review discusses three common surface modification techniques, viz. alkaline hydrolysis, UV light photografting, and plasma treatment. Alkaline hydrolysis involves the reaction of an alkaline solution with the surface of a material, causing the surface to develop carboxyl and hydroxyl groups. This technique can enhance the biocompatibility, surface wettability, adhesion, printability, and dyeability of materials, such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polycarbonate, and polylactic acid (PLA). This review also mentions details about some of the surface-modified 3D-printed diagnostic devices. Although most of the devices are modified using chemical processes, there are always multiple techniques involved while designing a diagnostic device. We have, therefore, mentioned some of the devices based on the materials used instead of categorising them as per modification techniques. 3D printing helps in the design of sophisticated shapes and structures using multiple materials. They can, therefore be used even in the design of microfluidic devices that are very useful for biosensing. We have also mentioned a few materials for printing microfluidic devices.

Gold Nanoparticle-Based Microfluidic Chips for Capture and Detection of Circulating Tumor Cells

Liquid biopsy has progressed to its current use to diagnose and monitor cancer. Despite the recent advances in investigating cancer detection and diagnosis strategies, there is still a room for improvements in capturing CTCs. We developed an efficient CTC detection system by integrating gold nanoparticles with a microfluidic platform, which can achieve CTC capture within 120 min. Here, we report our development of a simple and effective way to isolate CTCs using antibodies attached on gold nanoparticles to the surface of a lateral filter array (LFA) microdevice. Our method was optimized using three pancreatic tumor cell lines, enabling the capture with high efficiency (90% ± 3.2%). The platform was further demonstrated for isolating CTCs from patients with metastatic pancreatic cancer. Our method and platform enables the production of functionalized, patterned surfaces that interact with tumor cells, enhancing the selective capture of CTCs for biological assays.

Effective Circulating Tumor Cell Isolation Using Epithelial and Mesenchymal Markers in Prostate and Pancreatic Cancer Patients

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) display antigenic heterogeneity between epithelial and mesenchymal phenotypes. However, most current CTC isolation methods rely on EpCAM (epithelial cell adhesion molecule) antibodies. This study introduces a more efficient CTC isolation technique utilizing both EpCAM and vimentin (mesenchymal cell marker) antibodies, alongside a lateral magnetophoretic microseparator. The effectiveness of this approach was assessed by isolating CTCs from prostate (n = 17) and pancreatic (n = 5) cancer patients using EpCAM alone, vimentin alone, and both antibodies together. Prostate cancer patients showed an average of 13.29, 11.13, and 27.95 CTCs/mL isolated using EpCAM alone, vimentin alone, and both antibodies, respectively. For pancreatic cancer patients, the averages were 1.50, 3.44, and 10.82 CTCs/mL with EpCAM alone, vimentin alone, and both antibodies, respectively. Combining antibodies more than doubled CTC isolation compared to single antibodies. Interestingly, EpCAM antibodies were more effective for localized prostate cancer, while vimentin antibodies excelled in metastatic prostate cancer isolation. Moreover, vimentin antibodies outperformed EpCAM antibodies for all pancreatic cancer patients. These results highlight that using both epithelial and mesenchymal antibodies with the lateral magnetophoretic microseparator significantly enhances CTC isolation efficiency, and that antibody choice may vary depending on cancer type and stage.

Toward Personalized Nanomedicine: The Critical Evaluation of Micro and Nanodevices for Cancer Biomarker Analysis in Liquid Biopsy

Liquid biopsy for the analysis of circulating cancer biomarkers (CBs) is a major advancement toward the early detection of cancer. In comparison to tissue biopsy techniques, liquid biopsy is relatively painless, offering multiple sampling opportunities across easily accessible bodily fluids such as blood, urine, and saliva. Liquid biopsy is also relatively inexpensive and simple, avoiding the requirement for specialized laboratory equipment or trained medical staff. Major advances in the field of liquid biopsy are attributed largely to developments in nanotechnology and microfabrication that enables the creation of highly precise chip-based platforms. These devices can overcome detection limitations of an individual biomarker by detecting multiple markers simultaneously on the same chip, or by featuring integrated and combined target separation techniques. In this review, the major advances in the field of portable and semi-portable micro, nano, and multiplexed platforms for CB detection for the early diagnosis of cancer are highlighted. A comparative discussion is also provided, noting merits and drawbacks of the platforms, especially in terms of portability. Finally, key challenges toward device portability and possible solutions, as well as discussing the future direction of the field are highlighted.

Detection of circulating tumor cells: opportunities and challenges

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are cells that shed from a primary tumor and travel through the bloodstream. Studying the functional and molecular characteristics of CTCs may provide in-depth knowledge regarding highly lethal tumor diseases. Researchers are working to design devices and develop analytical methods that can capture and detect CTCs in whole blood from cancer patients with improved sensitivity and specificity. Techniques using whole blood samples utilize physical prosperity, immunoaffinity or a combination of the above methods and positive and negative enrichment during separation. Further analysis of CTCs is helpful in cancer monitoring, efficacy evaluation and designing of targeted cancer treatment methods. Although many advances have been achieved in the detection and molecular characterization of CTCs, several challenges still exist that limit the current use of this burgeoning diagnostic approach. In this review, a brief summary of the biological characterization of CTCs is presented. We focus on the current existing CTC detection methods and the potential clinical implications and challenges of CTCs. We also put forward our own views regarding the future development direction of CTCs.

Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing in Cancer Therapy and Diagnostics: Current Status and Future Perspectives

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a technique where the products are printed layer-by-layer via a series of cross-sectional slices with the exact deposition of different cell types and biomaterials based on computer-aided design software. Three-dimensional printing can be divided into several approaches, such as extrusion-based printing, laser-induced forward transfer-based printing systems, and so on. Bio-ink is a crucial tool necessary for the fabrication of the 3D construct of living tissue in order to mimic the native tissue/cells using 3D printing technology. The formation of 3D software helps in the development of novel drug delivery systems with drug screening potential, as well as 3D constructs of tumor models. Additionally, several complex structures of inner tissues like stroma and channels of different sizes are printed through 3D printing techniques. Three-dimensional printing technology could also be used to develop therapy training simulators for educational purposes so that learners can practice complex surgical procedures. The fabrication of implantable medical devices using 3D printing technology with less risk of infections is receiving increased attention recently. A Cancer-on-a-chip is a microfluidic device that recreates tumor physiology and allows for a continuous supply of nutrients or therapeutic compounds. In this review, based on the recent literature, we have discussed various printing methods for 3D printing and types of bio-inks, and provided information on how 3D printing plays a crucial role in cancer management.

Folic Acid-Modified Fluorescent-Magnetic Nanoparticles for Efficient Isolation and Identification of Circulating Tumor Cells in Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer (OC) is a lethal disease occurring in women worldwide. Due to the lack of obvious clinical symptoms and sensitivity biomarkers, OC patients are often diagnosed in advanced stages and suffer a poor prognosis. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs), released from tumor sites into the peripheral blood, have been recognized as promising biomarkers in cancer prognosis, treatment monitoring, and metastasis diagnosis. However, the number of CTCs in peripheral blood is low, and it is a technical challenge to isolate, enrich, and identify CTCs from the blood samples of patients. This work develops a simple, effective, and inexpensive strategy to capture and identify CTCs from OC blood samples using the folic acid (FA) and antifouling-hydrogel-modified fluorescent-magnetic nanoparticles. The hydrogel showed a good antifouling property against peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The FA was coupled to the hydrogel surface as the targeting molecule for the CTC isolation, held a good capture efficiency for SK-OV-3 cells (95.58%), and successfully isolated 2–12 CTCs from 10 OC patients’ blood samples. The FA-modified fluorescent-magnetic nanoparticles were successfully used for the capture and direct identification of CTCs from the blood samples of OC patients.

3D Printing Technologies in Biosensors Production: Recent Developments

Recent advances in 3D printing technologies and materials have enabled rapid development of innovative sensors for applications in different aspects of human life. Various 3D printing technologies have been adopted to fabricate biosensors or some of their components thanks to the advantages of these methodologies over the traditional ones, such as end-user customization and rapid prototyping. In this review, the works published in the last two years on 3D-printed biosensors are considered and grouped on the basis of the 3D printing technologies applied in different fields of application, highlighting the main analytical parameters. In the first part, 3D methods are discussed, after which the principal achievements and promising aspects obtained with the 3D-printed sensors are reported. An overview of the recent developments on this current topic is provided, as established by the considered works in this multidisciplinary field. Finally, future challenges on the improvement and innovation of the 3D printing technologies utilized for biosensors production are discussed.

Microfluidic Biosensor-Based Devices for Rapid Diagnosis and Effective Anti-cancer Therapeutic Monitoring for Breast Cancer Metastasis

Breast cancer with unpredictable metastatic recurrence is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality. Early cancer detection and optimized therapy are the principal determining factors for increased survival rate. Worldwide, researchers and clinicians are in search of efficient strategies for the timely management of cancer progression. Efficient preclinical models provide information on cancer initiation, malignancy progression, relapse, and drug efficacy. The distinct histopathological features and clinical heterogeneity allows no single model to mimic breast tumor. However, engineering three-dimensional (3D) in vitro models incorporating cells and biophysical cues using a combination of organoid culture, 3D printing, and microfluidic technology could recapitulate the tumor microenvironment. These models serve to be preferable predictive models bridging the translational research gap in drug development. Microfluidic device is a cost-effective advanced in vitro model for cancer research, diagnosis, and drug assay under physiologically relevant conditions. Integrating a biosensor with microfluidics allows rapid real-time analytical validation to provide highly sensitive, specific, reproducible, and reliable outcomes. In this manner, the multi-system approach in identifying biomarkers associated with cancer facilitates early detection, therapeutic window optimization, and post-treatment evaluation.This chapter showcases the advancements related to in vitro breast cancer metastasis models focusing on microfluidic devices. The chapter aims to provide an overview of microfluidic biosensor-based devices for cancer detection and high-throughput chemotherapeutic drug screening.