Diagnostic Value of VEGF-A, VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 in Feline Mammary Carcinoma

A Scoping Review on Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Cats: Current Evidence and Future Directions

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have become invaluable in the treatment of human and canine malignancies, but their role in feline oncology is less defined. While toceranib phosphate and masitinib mesylate are licensed for use in dogs, no TKI is yet approved for cats. This review systematically maps the research conducted on the expression of tyrosine kinases in neoplastic and non-neoplastic domestic feline tissues, as well as the in vitro/in vivo use of TKIs in domestic cats. We identify and discuss knowledge gaps and speculate on the further research and potential indications for TKI use in cats. A comprehensive search of three electronic databases and relevant paper reference lists identified 139 studies meeting the inclusion criteria. The most commonly identified tumors were mast cell tumors (MCTs), mammary and squamous cell carcinomas and injection-site sarcomas. Based on the current literature, toceranib phosphate appears to be the most efficacious TKI in cats, especially against MCTs. Exploring the clinical use of TKIs in mammary carcinomas holds promise. Despite the progress, currently, the evidence falls short, underscoring the need for further research to discover new indications in feline oncology and to bridge the knowledge gaps between human and feline medicine.

In Silico and In Vitro Evaluation of Bevacizumab Biosimilar MB02 as an Antitumor Agent in Canine Mammary Carcinoma

Canine mammary carcinomas (CMC) are associated with major aggressive clinical behavior and high mortality. The current standard of care is based on surgical resection, without an established effective treatment scheme, highlighting the urgent need to develop novel effective therapies. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a key regulator of tumor angiogenesis and progression in the majority of solid cancers, including human and canine mammary carcinomas. The first therapy developed to target VEGF was bevacizumab, a recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody, which has already been approved as an anticancer agent in several human cancers. The goal of this work was to establish the therapeutic value of MB02 bevacizumab biosimilar in CMC. First, through different in silico approaches using the MUSCLE multiple-sequence alignment tool and the FoldX protein design algorithm, we were able to predict that canine VEGF is recognized by bevacizumab, after showing an extremely high sequence similarity between canine and human VEGF. Further, by using an ELISA-based in vitro binding assay, we confirmed that MB02 biosimilar was able to recognize canine VEGF. Additionally, canine VEGF-induced microvascular endothelial cell proliferation was inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner by MB02 biosimilar. These encouraging results show a high potential for MB02 as a promising therapeutic agent for the management of CMC.

Quantum evaluation and therapeutic activity of (E)-N-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2-(4-(3-oxo-3-phenylprop-1-en-1-yl) phenoxy)acetamide and its modified derivatives against EGFR and VEGFR-2 in the treatment of triple-negative cancer via in silico approach

The most dangerous subtype of breast cancer, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), accounts for 25% of all breast cancer-related deaths and 15% of all breast cancer cases. TNBC is distinguished by the lack of immunohistochemical expression of HER2, progesterone receptors, or oestrogen receptors. Although it has been reported that upregulation of EGFR and VEGFR-2 is associated with TNBC progression, no proven effective targeted therapy exists at this time. We used structural bioinformatics methods, including density functional theory, molecular docking, molecular dynamic simulation, pharmacokinetic and drug-likeness models, to identify promising EGFR/VEGFR-2 inhibitors from N-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2-[4-(3-oxo-3-phenylprop-1-en-1-yl) phenoxy] acetamide and six of its modified derivatives in light of the lack of effective targets inhibitor Version 14 of Spartan software was used to analyse density functional theory. The Schrodinger software suite 2018's Maestro interface was used for the molecular docking analysis, and the admetSAR and swissADME servers were used for drug-likeness and absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity. All of the compounds showed strong electronic characteristics. Additionally, all of the tested compounds met the ADMET and drug-likeness requirements without a single instance of Lipinski's rule of five violations. Additionally, the molecules' levels of affinity for the target proteins varied. The highest binding affinities were demonstrated by the MOLb-VEGFR-2 complex (- 9.925 kcal/mol) and the MOLg-EGFR complex (- 5.032 kcal/mol). The interaction of the molecules in the domain of the EGFR and VEGFR-2 receptors was also better understood through molecular dynamic simulation of the complex.

TIM-3 Is a Potential Immune Checkpoint Target in Cats with Mammary Carcinoma

Recent findings in human breast cancer (HBC) indicate that T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain-containing molecule-3 (TIM-3)-targeted therapies may effectively activate anticancer immune responses. Although feline mammary carcinoma (FMC) is a valuable cancer model, no studies on TIM-3 have been developed in this species. Thus, we evaluated the expression of TIM-3 by immunohistochemistry in total (t), stromal (s), and intra-tumoral (i) tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and in cancer cells, of 48 cats with mammary carcinoma. In parallel, serum TIM-3 levels were quantified using ELISA and the presence of somatic mutations in the TIM-3 gene was evaluated in 19 tumor samples. sTILs-TIM3+ were more frequent than iTILs-TIM-3+, with the TIM-3 ex-pression in sTILs and cancer cells being associated with more aggressive clinicopathological features. In contrast, the TIM-3 expression in iTILs and tTILs was associated with a more benign clinical course. Moreover, the serum TIM-3 levels were lower in animals with FMC when compared to healthy animals (p < 0.001). Only one somatic mutation was found in the TIM-3 gene, at intron 2, in one tumor sample. Altogether, our results suggest that the expression of TIM-3 among TILs subpopulations and cancer cells may influence the clinical outcome of cats with FMC, in line with the previous reports in HBC.

Differential Expression of HIF1A, EPAS1, and VEGF Genes in Benign and Malignant Ovarian Neoplasia

Simple Summary

Ovarian cancer (OC) has the highest mortality rate of all gynecological malignancies. Moreover, at the time of the first clinical manifestation, most patients have an advanced stage of the disease. Our study examined differences in mRNA levels of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF1A); endothelial PAS domain protein 1, also known as hypoxia-inducible factor 2-alpha (HIF2A/EPAS1); and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) between cancerous tissue, benign hyperplastic changes in the ovary, and normal tissue. We found that gene expression changes were visible not only in the case-control study, but also along with changes in severity. We observed disturbances in the expression levels of interdependent genes. Our findings suggest that mutual association in the expression of both HIF1A and HIF2A/EPAS1 with VEGFA has prognostic importance for patients with OC. Our observations may help identify patients for clinical trials aimed at inhibiting the hypoxia-induced neovascularization-dependent pathways.

Abstract

Ovarian cancer (OC) has the highest mortality rate of all gynecological malignancies. Moreover, at the time of the first clinical manifestation, most patients have an advanced stage of the disease. Our study examined differences in mRNA levels of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF1A); endothelial PAS domain protein 1, also known as hypoxia-inducible factor 2-alpha (HIF2A/EPAS1); and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) between cancerous tissue, benign hyperplastic changes in the ovary, and normal tissue. Our cohorts consisted of 52 patients diagnosed with OC (n = 55), benign non-cancerous changes (n = 21), and normal tissue samples (n = 38). The mRNA expression level was evaluated using RT-qPCR. We found that gene expression changes were visible not only in the case-control study, but also along with changes in severity. Additionally, the gene expression was differentiated in age, BMI, menopausal status, and the number of comorbidy-related groups. Furthermore, our findings demonstrate that analyzing the correlation between genes is essential. In a case-to-case and case-to-control study, we observed disturbances in the expression levels of interdependent genes. Our findings suggest that mutual association in the expression of both HIF1A and HIF2A/EPAS1 with VEGFA has prognostic importance for patients with OC. Our observations may help identify patients for clinical trials aimed at inhibiting the hypoxia-induced neovascularization-dependent pathways.

The Landscape of Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cells in Feline Mammary Carcinoma: Pathological and Clinical Implications

Feline mammary carcinoma (FMC) shares key molecular and clinicopathological features with human breast cancer. We have herein studied the inflammatory infiltrate of FMC in order to uncover potential therapeutic targets and prognostic markers. To this end, the expression of different markers (CD3, CD4, CD8, CD20, CD56, FoxP3, CD68 and CD163) was analyzed in total, stromal (s) and intratumoral (i) tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), in 73 feline mammary carcinomas. The results revealed that higher percentages of sCD8⁺ TILs were associated with longer disease-free survival (p = 0.05) and overall survival (p = 0.021). Additionally, higher percentages of iCD4⁺ TILs correlated with positive lymph node status (p = 0.003), whereas CD163⁺ TAMs were associated with undifferentiated tumors (p = 0.013). In addition, sCD3⁺ (p = 0.033), sCD8⁺ (p = 0.044) and sCD68⁺ (p = 0.023) immune cells were enriched in triple negative normal-like carcinomas compared to other subtypes. Altogether, our results suggest that specific subsets of immune cells may play a major role in clinical outcome of cats with mammary carcinoma, resembling what has been reported in human breast cancer. These data further support the relevance of the feline model in breast cancer studies.

fHER2, PR, ER, Ki-67 and Cytokeratin 5/6 Expression in Benign Feline Mammary Lesions

Simple Summary

Feline mammary neoplasias are highly prevalent in domestic cats and present many similarities to their human counterparts. Since information about benign feline mammary lesions is still scarce and often controversial, studies using a wider panel of oncological biomarkers are necessary to understand their potential contribution to malignant lesions. This study analyzed 47 benign lesions from 27 queens, regarding the expression of estrogen and progesterone receptors (ER and PR, respectively), fHER2 protein and two malignancy indicators (Ki-67 and CK 5/6). Our results showed that most of the lesions were ER positive (91.5%), PR negative (63.8%), fHER2 negative (64.4%), Ck 5/6 negative (76.6%) and with a low Ki-67 index (78.7%). Additionally, significant correlations were found between younger ages and ER positivity and between larger lesions and negative PR status. Our results highlight the importance of estrogen receptors in the development of benign feline mammary lesions, further contributing to the development of preventive and monitoring strategies in feline mammary oncology.

Abstract

Biomarkers are essential in the characterization of neoplastic lesions and aid not only in the classification of the nature of the lesions, but also in the understanding of their ontogeny, development and prognosis. In cats, while mammary carcinomas are increasingly being characterized, information on their benign lesions is still scarce. Indeed, a better characterization of benign lesions could have an important role in unravelling mammary oncogenesis, similar to that in human breast cancer. Thus, in this study, the expression of five markers was analyzed in 47 benign mammary lesions (hyperplasia, dysplasia and benign tumors) collected from 27 queens. Dysplastic and hyperplastic lesions were the most common (41/47, 81.7%). Most of the lesions were classified as ER positive (43/47, 91.5%), PR negative (30/47, 63.8%), fHER2 negative (29/47, 64.4%), CK 5/6 negative (36/47, 76.6%) and with a low Ki-67 index (37/47, 78.7%). Statistical analysis revealed a correlation between younger ages and ER positivity (p = 0.013) and between larger lesions and negative PR status (p = 0.038). These results reinforce the importance of evaluating the expression of the ER status, prevalent in benign lesions, as a putative precursor in cancer progression.

How VEGF-A and its splice variants affect breast cancer development - clinical implications

BACKGROUND

Altered expression levels and structural variations in the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) have been found to play important roles in cancer development and to be associated with the overall survival and therapy response of cancer patients. Particularly VEGF-A and its splice variants have been found to affect physiological and pathological angiogenic processes, including tumor angiogenesis, correlating with tumor progression, mostly caused by overexpression. This review focuses on the expression and impact of VEGF-A splice variants under physiologic conditions and in tumors and, in particular, the distribution and role of isoform VEGF165b in breast cancer.

CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

Many publications already highlighted the importance of VEGF-A and its splice variants in tumor therapy, especially in breast cancer, which are summarized in this review. Furthermore, we were able to demonstrate that cytoplasmatic VEGFA/165b expression is higher in invasive breast cancer tumor cells than in normal tissues or stroma. These examples show that the detection of VEGF splice variants can be performed also on the protein level in formalin fixed tissues. Although no quantitative conclusions can be drawn, these results may be the starting point for further studies at a quantitative level, which can be a major step towards the design of targeted antibody-based (breast) cancer therapies.

Histological changes of cervical tumours following Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC treatment, and its impact on cytokine expression

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ZAM administration had no effect on the bodyweight of cervical cancer rats.

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Antioxidants found in andaliman can lower levels of MDA and serum NGAL, thereby increasing SOD activity.

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ZAM treatment can suppress the production of IL1β and TGFβ1 which promotes cancer cell growth in rats.

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ZAM administration can increase IL-10 expression in cervical cancer rats, thereby suppressing the growth of cervical cancer.

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ZAM decrease VEGFR1 serum expression and improve histology in cervical cancer rats.

Cervical cancer is the second most lethal cancer in Indonesia, behind breast cancer. One of the reasons cancer cells are difficult to treat is that the immune system is sometimes unable to recognise them as foreign. Cytokinin therapy is carried out so that the immune system can strengthen its response to cancer cells, with the aim of slowing or stopping the development of malignant cells. Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC, also known as andaliman, is an Indonesian herb and a member of the Rutaceae family. It is rich in antioxidants and has anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. The current study aimed to investigate the histological changes and changes in the expression of cytokines, such as IL-10, IL1β, VEGFR1, and TGFβ1, associated with andaliman treatment. Sample tissues and serums extracted from cervical cancer rat models were used. Rats were divided into five groups: a control group (C−), cancer model group (C+), cancer with a dose of Z. acanthopodium methanolic extract (ZAM) 100 mg/body weight (BW) ZAM (ZAM100), cancer with a dose of ZAM 200 mg/BW ZAM (ZAM200), and cancer with a dose of ZAM 400 mg/BW ZAM (ZAM400). Treatment lasted for 1 month. Blood samples were prepared for ELISA analysis, and cervical tissue was stained for immunohistochemistry using antibodies against IL-10, IL-1β, VEGFR1, and TGFβ1. Administration of ZAM had no significant effect on rat body weight and cervical organs (p > 0.05). However, it impacted haematological parameters in rats with cervical cancer (p < 0.05). Elevated malondialdehyde levels may be linked to superoxide dismutase deficiency in tumour tissue. ZAM significantly decreased the expression of IL1β, TGFβ1, and VEGFR1 (p < 0.01), while it increased the expression of IL-10. Therefore, ZAM may be a potential target for molecular cytokine therapy for cervical cancer.

Feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: reduced microvascular density and involvement of CD34+ interstitial cells

The sequence of pathological events in feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (fHCM) is still largely unknown, although we know that fHCM is characterized by interstitial remodeling in a macrophage-driven pro-inflammatory environment and that myocardial ischemia might contribute to its progression. This study aimed to gain further insights into the structural changes associated with interstitial remodeling in fHCM with special focus on the myocardial microvasculature and the phenotype of the interstitial cells. Twenty-eight hearts (16 hearts with fHCM and 12 without cardiac disease) were evaluated in the current study, with immunohistochemistry, RNA-in situ hybridization, and transmission electron microscopy. Morphometrical evaluations revealed a statistically significant lower microvascular density in fHCM. This was associated with structural alterations in capillaries that go along with a widening of the interstitium due to the accumulation of edema fluid, collagen fibers, and mononuclear cells that also proliferated locally. The interstitial cells were mainly of fibroblastic or vascular phenotype, with a substantial contribution of predominantly resident macrophages. A large proportion expressed CD34 mRNA, which suggests a progenitor cell potential. Our results indicate that microvascular alterations are key events in the pathogenesis of fHCM and that myocardial interstitial cell populations with CD34+ phenotype play a role in the pathogenesis of the disease.

Toceranib phosphate (Palladia) for the treatment of canine exocrine pancreatic adenocarcinoma

Background

Canine pancreatic carcinoma is a rare, aggressive tumour that is often diagnosed late in the course of disease. Effective treatment strategies have been elusive, and overall survival time is short. In humans, treatment with tyrosine kinase inhibitors alone, or in combination with IV gemcitabine, have been moderately effective. As canine and human pancreatic carcinomas share many clinical aspects, strategies that mimic human treatment regimens may confer a better outcome in canine patients. The aim of this study was to assess the role of the veterinary tyrosine kinase inhibitor, toceranib phosphate, in the treatment of cytologically or histologically confirmed canine pancreatic carcinomas.

Results

Retrospectively, medical records of dogs with confirmed pancreatic carcinoma treated with toceranib were reviewed. Eight dogs were identified that fit the inclusion criteria. Toceranib was well-tolerated by all patients. Six were treated in the gross disease setting. Four had image-based evaluation of clinical benefit (complete response, partial response, or stable disease of > 10 weeks). Of those patients, 1 achieved a partial response, 2 stable disease, and 1 had progressive disease, for an overall clinical benefit rate of 75 %. An additional dog had clinically stable disease that was not confirmed via imaging. The toceranib-specific median overall survival time was 89.5 days (range: 14–506 days).

Conclusions

Although limited in patient number, this small study suggests that toceranib may have biologic activity in dogs with pancreatic carcinoma. Larger, prospective studies are needed to confirm these preliminary results and define the use of toceranib in the microscopic disease setting.

Emerging Biomarkers and Targeted Therapies in Feline Mammary Carcinoma

Feline mammary carcinoma (FMC) is a common aggressive malignancy with a low survival rate that lacks viable therapeutic options beyond mastectomy. Recently, increasing efforts have been made to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying FMC development, using the knowledge gained from studies on human breast cancer to discover new diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, thus reinforcing the utility of the cat as a cancer model. In this article, we review the current knowledge on FMC pathogenesis, biomarkers, and prognosis factors and offer new insights into novel therapeutic options for HER2-positive and triple-negative FMC subtypes.

Synergic Neuroprotection Between Ligusticum Chuanxiong Hort and Borneol Against Ischemic Stroke by Neurogenesis via Modulating Reactive Astrogliosis and Maintaining the Blood-Brain Barrier

Background:Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort (LCH) is a famous ethnomedicine in Asia known for its excellent output on stroke treatment, and borneol usually acts as an assistant for its reducing permeability of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) after stroke. Although their synergy against brain ischemia was verified in previous studies, the potential mechanism is still unknown.

Methods: The research aimed to explore the exact synergic mechanisms between LCH and borneol on neurogenesis within the areas of the dentate gyrus and subventricular zone. After treating middle cerebral artery occlusion rats with LCH (0.1 g/kg) and/or borneol (0.08 g/kg), the neurological severity score, brain infarct ratio, Nissl staining, Evans blue permeability, BBB ultrastructure, and expressions of von Willebrand factor and tight junction–associated proteins were measured. Co-localizations of Nestin⁺/BrdU⁺ and doublecortin⁺/BrdU⁺, and expressions of neuronal nuclei (NeuN) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) were observed under a fluorescence microscope. Moreover, astrocyte polarization markers of complement component 3 and pentraxin 3, and relevant neurotrophins were also detected by immunoblotting.

Results: Basically, LCH and borneol had different focuses, although both of them decreased infarct areas, and increased quantity of Nissl bodies and expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. LCH increased the neurological severity score, NeuN⁺ cells, and the ratios of Nestin⁺/BrdU⁺ and doublecortin⁺/BrdU⁺, and decreased GFAP⁺ cells and ciliary neurotrophic factor expression. Additionally, it regulated the expressions of complement component 3 and pentraxin 3 to transform astrocyte phenotypes. Borneol improved BBB ultrastructure and increased the expressions of von Willebrand factor, tight junction–associated proteins, vascular endothelial growth factor, and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2. Unexpectedly, their combined therapy showed more obvious regulations on the Nissl score, Evans blue permeability, doublecortin⁺/BrdU⁺, NeuN⁺ cells, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and vascular endothelial growth factor than both of their monotherapies.

Conclusions: The results indicated that LCH and borneol were complementary to each other in attenuating brain ischemia by and large. LCH mainly promoted neural stem cell proliferation, neurogenesis, and mature neuron preservation, which was probably related to the transformation of reactive astrocytes from A1 subtype to A2, while borneol preferred to maintain the integrity of the BBB, which provided neurogenesis with a homeostatic environment.