A Novel Localization in Human Large Extracellular Vesicles for the EGF-CFC Founder Member CRIPTO and Its Biological and Therapeutic Implications

Extracellular Vesicles: Hermes between cancers and lymph nodes

Cancer is one of the main causes of death and a major obstacle to increasing life expectancy in all countries of the world. Lymph node metastasis (LNM) of in cancer patients indicates poor prognosis and it is an important indication to determine the therapeutic regime. Therefore, more attention should be given to the molecular mechanics of tumor lymphangiogenesis and LNM. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale cargo-bearing membrane vesicles that can serve as key mediators for the intercellular communication. Like Hermes, the messenger of the Greek gods, EVs can be secreted by tumor cells to regulate the LNM process. Many evidence has proved the clinical correlation between EVs and LNM in various cancer types. EVs plays an active role in the process of metastasis by expressing its connotative molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolites. However, the clear role of EVs in the process of cancer LNM has not been thoroughly studied yet. In this review, we will summarize the clinical and mechanical findings of EVs regulating role on cancer LNM, and discuss the advanced modification of the research proposal. We propose the "PUMP" principle of EVs in LNM, including Preparation, Unleash, Migration, and Planting.

Proteome alterations in peripheral immune cells of DLBCL patients and evidence of cancer extracellular vesicles involvement

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is an aggressive disease and a frequent form of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Given the primary localization of DLBCL and the effect of tumors on the systemic immune response, we investigated the proteome of DLBCL patients' and healthy donors (HDs') peripheral immune cells (PICs). Since the ubiquitin-proteasome system has a vital role in proteome regulation and immune cells' functions, this study also explores the potential impact of DLBCL secretome on the polyubiquitination level in PICs. PICs from DLBCL patients and HDs were isolated and analyzed by mass spectrometry-based proteomics. The analysis resulted in 135 down and 51 upregulated proteins (adjusted p-value <0.05). Unsupervised principal component analysis revealed distinct proteomic profiles between DLBCL and HDs. Functional enrichment analysis for comparison between DLBCL and HDs-PICs proteome identified immune-related pathways such as innate immune system, specifically neutrophil degranulation, Fcγ receptor-dependent phagocytosis, and JAK-STAT signaling after IL-12 stimulation as downregulated. Proteomics analysis of DLBCL-PICs also showed dysregulation of proteostasis factors. This prompted the investigation of the effect of tumor secretome on viability and polyubiquitination level in mononuclear immune cells. Therefore, human HD peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were cultured in the presence of DLBCL cell line-derived soluble factors, small-EVs, and large-EVs in vitro. Our results revealed that exposure of mainly small-EVs, and large-EVs to HD PBMCs increased the polyubiquitination in PBMCs and decreased PIC viability. These findings suggest impaired immune responses in DLBCL-PICs, with tumor secretome-inducing polyubiquitination and reduced PIC viability.

Milk derived extracellular vesicle uptake in human microglia regulates the DNA methylation machinery : Short title: milk-derived extracellular vesicles and the epigenetic machinery

Mammalian milk contains milk-derived extracellular vesicles (MEVs), a group of biological nanovesicles that transport macromolecules. Their ability to cross the blood brain barrier and the presence of cargo capable of modifying gene function have led to the hypothesis that MEVs may play a role in brain function and development. Here, we investigated the uptake of MEVs by human microglia cells in vitro and explored the functional outcomes of MEV uptake. We examined the expression of the miR-148/152 family, highly abundant MEV microRNAs, that directly suppress the translation of DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) enzymes crucial for catalyzing DNA methylation modifications. We also measured phenotypic and inflammatory gene expression in baseline homeostatic and IFN-γ primed microglia to determine if MEVs induce anti-inflammatory effects. We found that MEVs are taken up and localize in baseline and primed microglia. In baseline microglia, MEV supplementation reduced miR-148a-5P levels, increased DNMT1 transcript, protein abundance, and enzymatic activity, compared to cells that did not receive MEVs. In primed microglia, MEV supplementation decreased miR-148a-5P levels and increased DNMT1 protein abundance, but DNMT1 transcript and enzymatic levels remained unchanged. Contrary to predictions, MEV supplementation failed to attenuate pro-inflammatory IL1β expression in primed microglia. This study provides the first evidence of MEV uptake by a brain macrophage, suggesting a potential role in regulating epigenetic machinery and neuroimmune modulation.

Dormancy and awakening of cancer cells: the extracellular vesicle-mediated cross-talk between Dr. Jekill and Mr. Hyde

Cancer cell dormancy is a reversible process whereby cancer cells enter a quiescent state characterized by cell cycle arrest, inhibition of cell migration and invasion, and increased chemoresistance. Because of its reversibility and resistance to treatment, dormancy is a key process to study, monitor, and interfere with, in order to prevent tumor recurrence and metastasis and improve the prognosis of cancer patients. However, to achieve this goal, further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying this complex and dynamic dual process. Here, we review the contribution of extracellular vesicles (EVs) to the regulation of cancer cell dormancy/awakening, focusing on the cross-talk between tumor and non-tumor cells in both the primary tumor and the (pre-)metastatic niche. Although EVs are recognized as key players in tumor progression and metastasis, as well as in tumor diagnostics and therapeutics, their role specifically in dormancy induction/escape is still largely elusive. We report on the most recent and promising results on this topic, focusing on the EV-associated nucleic acids involved. We highlight how EV studies could greatly contribute to the identification of dormancy signaling pathways and a dormancy/early awakening signature for the development of successful diagnostic/prognostic and therapeutic approaches.

CRIPTO promotes extracellular vesicle uptake and activation of cancer associated fibroblasts

Expression of CRIPTO, a factor involved in embryonic stem cells, fetal development, and wound healing, is tied to poor prognosis in multiple cancers. Prior studies in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) models showed CRIPTO blockade inhibits tumor growth and dissemination. Here, we uncover a previously unidentified role for CRIPTO in orchestrating tumor-derived extracellular vesicle (TEV) uptake and fibroblast activation through discrete mechanisms. We found a novel mechanism by which CRIPTO drives aggressive TNBC phenotypes, involving CRIPTO-laden TEVs that program stromal fibroblasts, toward cancer associated fibroblast cell states, which in turn prompt tumor cell invasion. CRIPTO-bearing TEVs exhibited markedly elevated uptake in target fibroblasts and activated SMAD2/3 through NODAL-independent and - dependent mechanisms, respectively. Engineered expression of CRIPTO on EVs enhanced the delivery of bioactive molecules. In vivo , CRIPTO levels dictated TEV uptake in mouse lungs, a site of EV-regulated premetastatic niches important for breast cancer dissemination. These discoveries reveal a novel role for CRIPTO in coordinating heterotypic cellular crosstalk which offers novel insights into breast cancer progression, delivery of therapeutic molecules, and new, potentially targetable mechanisms of heterotypic cellular communication between tumor cells and the TME.

Characterization of Nanohybridosomes from Lipids and Spruce Homogenate Containing Extracellular Vesicles

Introduction

Lipid nanovesicles associated with bioactive phytochemicals from spruce needle homogenate (here called nano-sized hybridosomes or nanohybridosomes, NSHs) were considered.

Methods

We formed NSHs by mixing appropriate amounts of lecithin, glycerol and supernatant of isolation of extracellular vesicles from spruce needle homogenate. We visualized NSHs by light microscopy and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy and assessed them by flow cytometry, dynamic light scattering, ultraviolet-visual spectroscopy, interferometric light microscopy and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Results

We found that the particles consisted of a bilayer membrane and a fluid-like interior. Flow cytometry and interferometric light microscopy measurements showed that the majority of the particles were nano-sized. Dynamic light scattering and interferometric light microscopy measurements agreed well on the average hydrodynamic radius of the particles Rh (between 140 and 180 nm), while the concentrations of the particles were in the range between 1013 and 1014/mL indicating that NSHs present a considerable (more than 25%) of the sample which is much more than the yield of natural extracellular vesicles (EVs) from spruce needle homogenate (estimated less than 1%). Spruce specific lipids and proteins were found in hybridosomes.

Discussion

Simple and low-cost preparation method, non-demanding saving process and efficient formation procedure suggest that large-scale production of NSHs from lipids and spruce needle homogenate is feasible.

Challenges and Promise for Glioblastoma Treatment through Extracellular Vesicle Inquiry

Glioblastoma (GB) is a rare but extremely aggressive brain tumor that significantly impacts patient outcomes, affecting both duration and quality of life. The protocol established by Stupp and colleagues in 2005, based on radiotherapy and chemotherapy with Temozolomide, following maximum safe surgical resection remains the gold standard for GB treatment; however, it is evident nowadays that the extreme intratumoral and intertumoral heterogeneity, as well as the invasiveness and tendency to recur, of GB are not compatible with a routine and unfortunately ineffective treatment. This review article summarizes the main challenges in the search for new valuable therapies for GB and focuses on the impact that extracellular vesicle (EV) research and exploitation may have in the field. EVs are natural particles delimited by a lipidic bilayer and filled with functional cellular content that are released and uptaken by cells as key means of cell communication. Furthermore, EVs are stable in body fluids and well tolerated by the immune system, and are able to cross physiological, interspecies, and interkingdom barriers and to target specific cells, releasing inherent or externally loaded functionally active molecules. Therefore, EVs have the potential to be ideal allies in the fight against GB and to improve the prognosis for GB patients. The present work describes the main preclinical results obtained so far on the use of EVs for GB treatment, focusing on both the EV sources and molecular cargo used in the various functional studies, primarily in vivo. Finally, a SWOT analysis is performed, highlighting the main advantages and pitfalls of developing EV-based GB therapeutic strategies. The analysis also suggests the main directions to explore to realize the possibility of exploiting EVs for the treatment of GB.

Pathological and Therapeutic Significance of Tumor-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Cell Migration and Metastasis

The infiltration of primary tumors and metastasis formation at distant sites strongly impact the prognosis and the quality of life of cancer patients. Current therapies including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy are limited in targeting the complex cell migration mechanisms responsible for cancer cell invasiveness and metastasis. A better understanding of these mechanisms and the development of new therapies are urgently needed. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-enveloped particles involved in inter-tissue and inter-cell communication. This review article focuses on the impact of EVs released by tumor cells, specifically on cancer cell migration and metastasis. We first introduce cell migration processes and EV subtypes, and we give an overview of how tumor-derived EVs (TDEVs) may impact cancer cell migration. Then, we discuss ongoing EV-based cancer therapeutic approaches, including the inhibition of general EV-related mechanisms as well as the use of EVs for anti-cancer drug delivery, focusing on the harnessing of TDEVs. We propose a protein-EV shuttle as a route alternative to secretion or cell membrane binding, influencing downstream signaling and the final effect on target cells, with strong implications in tumorigenesis. Finally, we highlight the pitfalls and limitations of therapeutic EV exploitation that must be overcome to realize the promise of EVs for cancer therapy.

Cell-Cell Communication and Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer

Cell-cell communication, either through direct contact or indirectly, is critical for multiple cellular processes, such as proliferation, survival, differentiation, and transdifferentiation, and it plays a fundamental role in maintaining the integrity of tissue structure and cellular environment [...].

Inflammatory, Oxidative Stress and Small Cellular Particle Response in HUVEC Induced by Debris from Endoprosthesis Processing

We studied inflammatory and oxidative stress-related parameters and cytotoxic response of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) to a 24 h treatment with milled particles simulating debris involved in sandblasting of orthopedic implants (OI). We used different abrasives (corundum-(Al₂O₃), used corundum retrieved from removed OI (u. Al₂O₃), and zirconia/silica composite (ZrO₂/SiO₂)). Morphological changes were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Concentration of Interleukins IL-6 and IL-1β and Tumor Necrosis Factor α (TNF)-α was assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Activity of Cholinesterase (ChE) and Glutathione S-transferase (GST) was measured by spectrophotometry. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid droplets (LD) and apoptosis were measured by flow cytometry (FCM). Detachment of the cells from glass and budding of the cell membrane did not differ in the treated and untreated control cells. Increased concentration of IL-1β and of IL-6 was found after treatment with all tested particle types, indicating inflammatory response of the treated cells. Increased ChE activity was found after treatment with u. Al₂O₃ and ZrO₂/SiO₂. Increased GST activity was found after treatment with ZrO₂/SiO₂. Increased LD quantity but not ROS quantity was found after treatment with u. Al₂O₃. No cytotoxicity was detected after treatment with u. Al₂O₃. The tested materials in concentrations added to in vitro cell lines were found non-toxic but bioactive and therefore prone to induce a response of the human body to OI.

Small Cellular Particles from European Spruce Needle Homogenate

Small cellular particles (SCPs) are being considered for their role in cell-to-cell communication. We harvested and characterized SCPs from spruce needle homogenate. SCPs were isolated by differential ultracentrifugation. They were imaged by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and cryogenic transmission electron microscope (cryo TEM), assessed for their number density and hydrodynamic diameter by interferometric light microscopy (ILM) and flow cytometry (FCM), total phenolic content (TPC) by UV-vis spectroscopy, and terpene content by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The supernatant after ultracentrifugation at 50,000× g contained bilayer-enclosed vesicles whereas in the isolate we observed small particles of other types and only a few vesicles. The number density of cell-sized particles (CSPs) (larger than 2 μm) and meso-sized particles (MSPs) (cca 400 nm-2 µm) was about four orders of magnitude lower than the number density of SCPs (sized below 500 nm). The average hydrodynamic diameter of SCPs measured in 10,029 SCPs was 161 ± 133 nm. TCP decreased considerably due to 5-day aging. Volatile terpenoid content was found in the pellet after 300× g. The above results indicate that spruce needle homogenate is a source of vesicles to be explored for potential delivery use.

Assessment of Small Cellular Particles from Four Different Natural Sources and Liposomes by Interferometric Light Microscopy

Small particles in natural sources are a subject of interest for their potential role in intercellular, inter-organism, and inter-species interactions, but their harvesting and assessment present a challenge due to their small size and transient identity. We applied a recently developed interferometric light microscopy (ILM) to assess the number density and hydrodynamic radius (R_h) of isolated small cellular particles (SCPs) from blood preparations (plasma and washed erythrocytes) (B), spruce needle homogenate (S), suspension of flagellae of microalgae Tetraselmis chuii (T), conditioned culture media of microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum (P), and liposomes (L). The aliquots were also assessed by flow cytometry (FCM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), ultraviolet-visible spectrometry (UV-vis), and imaging by cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM). In R_h, ILM showed agreement with DLS within the measurement error in 10 out of 13 samples and was the only method used here that yielded particle density. Cryo-TEM revealed that representative SCPs from Tetraselmis chuii flagella (T) did not have a globular shape, so the interpretation by R_h of the batch methods was biased. Cryo-TEM showed the presence of thin filaments in isolates from Phaeodactylum tricornutum conditioned culture media (P), which provides an explanation for the considerably larger R_h obtained by batch methods than the sizes of particles observed by cryo-TEM images. ILM proved convenient for assessment of number density and R_h of SCPs in blood preparations (e.g., plasma); therefore, its use in population and clinical studies is indicated.