Detecting Epileptic Seizures in EEG Signals with Complementary Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition and Extreme Gradient Boosting

The Application of Entropy in Motor Imagery Paradigms of Brain-Computer Interfaces

Background: In motor imagery brain-computer interface (MI-BCI) research, electroencephalogram (EEG) signals are complex and nonlinear. This complexity and nonlinearity render signal processing and classification challenging when employing traditional linear methods. Information entropy, with its intrinsic nonlinear characteristics, effectively captures the dynamic behavior of EEG signals, thereby addressing the limitations of traditional methods in capturing linear features. However, the multitude of entropy types leads to unclear application scenarios, with a lack of systematic descriptions. Methods: This study conducted a review of 63 high-quality research articles focused on the application of entropy in MI-BCI, published between 2019 and 2023. It summarizes the names, functions, and application scopes of 13 commonly used entropy measures. Results: The findings indicate that sample entropy (16.3%), Shannon entropy (13%), fuzzy entropy (12%), permutation entropy (9.8%), and approximate entropy (7.6%) are the most frequently utilized entropy features in MI-BCI. The majority of studies employ a single entropy feature (79.7%), with dual entropy (9.4%) and triple entropy (4.7%) being the most prevalent combinations in multiple entropy applications. The incorporation of entropy features can significantly enhance pattern classification accuracy (by 8-10%). Most studies (67%) utilize public datasets for classification verification, while a minority design and conduct experiments (28%), and only 5% combine both methods. Conclusions: Future research should delve into the effects of various entropy features on specific problems to clarify their application scenarios. As research methodologies continue to evolve and advance, entropy features are poised to play a significant role in a wide array of fields and contexts.

Comparison analysis between standard polysomnographic data and in-ear-electroencephalography signals: a preliminary study

Study Objectives

Polysomnography (PSG) currently serves as the benchmark for evaluating sleep disorders. Its discomfort makes long-term monitoring unfeasible, leading to bias in sleep quality assessment. Hence, less invasive, cost-effective, and portable alternatives need to be explored. One promising contender is the in-ear-electroencephalography (EEG) sensor. This study aims to establish a methodology to assess the similarity between the single-channel in-ear-EEG and standard PSG derivations.

Methods

The study involves 4-hour signals recorded from 10 healthy subjects aged 18-60 years. Recordings are analyzed following two complementary approaches: (1) a hypnogram-based analysis aimed at assessing the agreement between PSG and in-ear-EEG-derived hypnograms; and (2) a feature- and analysis-based on time- and frequency-domain feature extraction, unsupervised feature selection, and definition of Feature-based Similarity Index via Jensen-Shannon Divergence (JSD-FSI).

Results

We find large variability between PSG and in-ear-EEG hypnograms scored by the same sleep expert according to Cohen's kappa metric, with significantly greater agreements for PSG scorers than for in-ear-EEG scorers (p < .001) based on Fleiss' kappa metric. On average, we demonstrate a high similarity between PSG and in-ear-EEG signals in terms of JSD-FSI-0.79 ± 0.06-awake, 0.77 ± 0.07-nonrapid eye movement, and 0.67 ± 0.10-rapid eye movement-and in line with the similarity values computed independently on standard PSG channel combinations.

Conclusions

In-ear-EEG is a valuable solution for home-based sleep monitoring; however, further studies with a larger and more heterogeneous dataset are needed.

Research progress of epileptic seizure prediction methods based on EEG

At present, at least 30% of refractory epilepsy patients in the world cannot be effectively controlled and treated. The suddenness and unpredictability of seizures greatly affect the physical and mental health and even the life safety of patients, and the realization of early prediction of seizures and the adoption of interventions are of great significance to the improvement of patients' quality of life. In this paper, we firstly introduce the design process of EEG-based seizure prediction methods, introduce several databases commonly used in the research, and summarize the commonly used methods in pre-processing, feature extraction, classification and identification, and post-processing. Then, based on scalp EEG and intracranial EEG respectively, we reviewed the current status of epileptic seizure prediction research from five commonly used feature analysis methods, and make a comprehensive evaluation of both. Finally, this paper describes the reasons why the current algorithms cannot be applied to the clinic, summarizes their limitations, and gives corresponding suggestions, aiming to provide improvement directions for subsequent research. In addition, deep learning algorithms have emerged in recent years, and this paper also compares the advantages and disadvantages of deep learning algorithms with traditional machine learning methods, in the hope of providing researchers with new technologies and new ideas and making significant breakthroughs in the field of epileptic seizure prediction.

A Complete Scheme for Multi-Character Classification Using EEG Signals From Speech Imagery

Some classification studies of brain-computer interface (BCI) based on speech imagery show potential for improving communication skills in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, current research on speech imagery is limited in scope and primarily focuses on vowels or a few selected words. In this paper, we propose a complete research scheme for multi-character classification based on EEG signals derived from speech imagery. Firstly, we record 31 speech imagery contents, including 26 alphabets and five commonly used punctuation marks, from seven subjects using a 32-channel electroencephalogram (EEG) device. Secondly, we introduce the wavelet scattering transform (WST), which shares a structural resemblance to Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), for feature extraction. The WST is a knowledge-driven technique that preserves high-frequency information and maintains the deformation stability of EEG signals. To reduce the dimensionality of wavelet scattering coefficient features, we employ Kernel Principal Component Analysis (KPCA). Finally, the reduced features are fed into an Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) classifier within a multi-classification framework. The XGBoost classifier is optimized through hyperparameter tuning using grid search and 10-fold cross-validation, resulting in an average accuracy of 78.73% for the multi-character classification task. We utilize t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (t-SNE) technology to visualize the low-dimensional representation of multi-character speech imagery. This visualization effectively enables us to observe the clustering of similar characters. The experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed multi-character classification scheme. Furthermore, our classification categories and accuracy exceed those reported in existing research.

Innovation through Artificial Intelligence in Triage Systems for Resource Optimization in Future Pandemics

Artificial intelligence (AI) systems are already being used in various healthcare areas. Similarly, they can offer many advantages in hospital emergency services. The objective of this work is to demonstrate that through the novel use of AI, a trained system can be developed to detect patients at potential risk of infection in a new pandemic more quickly than standardized triage systems. This identification would occur in the emergency department, thus allowing for the early implementation of organizational preventive measures to block the chain of transmission.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, we propose the use of a machine learning system in emergency department triage during pandemics to detect patients at the highest risk of death and infection using the COVID-19 era as an example, where rapid decision making and comprehensive support have becoming increasingly crucial. All patients who consecutively presented to the emergency department were included, and more than 89 variables were automatically analyzed using the extreme gradient boosting (XGB) algorithm.

RESULTS

The XGB system demonstrated the highest balanced accuracy at 91.61%. Additionally, it obtained results more quickly than traditional triage systems. The variables that most influenced mortality prediction were procalcitonin level, age, and oxygen saturation, followed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level, C-reactive protein, the presence of interstitial infiltrates on chest X-ray, and D-dimer. Our system also identified the importance of oxygen therapy in these patients.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight that XGB is a useful and novel tool in triage systems for guiding the care pathway in future pandemics, thus following the example set by the well-known COVID-19 pandemic.

Epileptic seizure detection using CHB-MIT dataset: The overlooked perspectives

Epilepsy is a life-threatening neurological condition. Manual detection of epileptic seizures (ES) is laborious and burdensome. Machine learning techniques applied to electroencephalography (EEG) signals are widely used for automatic seizure detection. Some key factors are worth considering for the real-world applicability of such systems: (i) continuous EEG data typically has a higher class imbalance; (ii) higher variability across subjects is present in physiological signals such as EEG; and (iii) seizure event detection is more practical than random segment detection. Most prior studies failed to address these crucial factors altogether for seizure detection. In this study, we intend to investigate a generalized cross-subject seizure event detection system using the continuous EEG signals from the CHB-MIT dataset that considers all these overlooked aspects. A 5-second non-overlapping window is used to extract 92 features from 22 EEG channels; however, the most significant 32 features from each channel are used in experimentation. Seizure classification is done using a Random Forest (RF) classifier for segment detection, followed by a post-processing method used for event detection. Adopting all the above-mentioned essential aspects, the proposed event detection system achieved 72.63% and 75.34% sensitivity for subject-wise 5-fold and leave-one-out analyses, respectively. This study presents the real-world scenario for ES event detectors and furthers the understanding of such detection systems.

The EEG-Based Fusion Entropy-Featured Identification of Isometric Contraction Forces under the Same Action

This study explores the important role of assessing force levels in accurately controlling upper limb movements in human-computer interfaces. It uses a new method that combines entropy to improve the recognition of force levels. This research aims to differentiate between different levels of isometric contraction forces using electroencephalogram (EEG) signal analysis. It integrates eight different entropy measures: power spectrum entropy (PSE), singular spectrum entropy (SSE), logarithmic energy entropy (LEE), approximation entropy (AE), sample entropy (SE), fuzzy entropy (FE), alignment entropy (PE), and envelope entropy (EE). The findings emphasize two important advances: first, including a wide range of entropy features significantly improves classification efficiency; second, the fusion entropy method shows exceptional accuracy in classifying isometric contraction forces. It achieves an accuracy rate of 91.73% in distinguishing between 15% and 60% maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) forces, along with 69.59% accuracy in identifying variations across 15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% MVC. These results illuminate the efficacy of employing fusion entropy in EEG signal analysis for isometric contraction detection, heralding new opportunities for advancing motor control and facilitating fine motor movements through sophisticated human-computer interface technologies.

Novel ML-Based Algorithm for Detecting Seizures from Single-Channel EEG

There is a need for seizure classification based on EEG signals that can be implemented with a portable device for in-home continuous minoring of epilepsy. In this study, we developed a novel machine learning algorithm for seizure detection suitable for wearable systems. Extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) was implemented to classify seizures from single-channel EEG obtained from an open-source CHB-MIT database. The results of classifying 1-s EEG segments are shown to be sufficient to obtain the information needed for seizure detection and achieve a high seizure sensitivity of up to 89% with low computational cost. This algorithm can be impeded in single-channel EEG systems that use in- or around-the-ear electrodes for continuous seizure monitoring at home.

Advanced framework for epilepsy detection through image-based EEG signal analysis

Background

Recurrent and unpredictable seizures characterize epilepsy, a neurological disorder affecting millions worldwide. Epilepsy diagnosis is crucial for timely treatment and better outcomes. Electroencephalography (EEG) time-series data analysis is essential for epilepsy diagnosis and surveillance. Complex signal processing methods used in traditional EEG analysis are computationally demanding and difficult to generalize across patients. Researchers are using machine learning to improve epilepsy detection, particularly visual feature extraction from EEG time-series data.

Objective

This study examines the application of a Gramian Angular Summation Field (GASF) approach for the analysis of EEG signals. Additionally, it explores the utilization of image features, specifically the Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) and Oriented FAST and Rotated BRIEF (ORB) techniques, for the purpose of epilepsy detection in EEG data.

Methods

The proposed methodology encompasses the transformation of EEG signals into images based on GASF, followed by the extraction of features utilizing SIFT and ORB techniques, and ultimately, the selection of relevant features. A state-of-the-art machine learning classifier is employed to classify GASF images into two categories: normal EEG patterns and focal EEG patterns. Bern-Barcelona EEG recordings were used to test the proposed method.

Results

This method classifies EEG signals with 96% accuracy using SIFT features and 94% using ORB features. The Random Forest (RF) classifier surpasses state-of-the-art approaches in precision, recall, F1-score, specificity, and Area Under Curve (AUC). The Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve shows that Random Forest outperforms Support Vector Machine (SVM) and k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN) classifiers.

Significance

The suggested method has many advantages over time-series EEG data analysis and machine learning classifiers used in epilepsy detection studies. A novel image-based preprocessing pipeline using GASF for robust image synthesis and SIFT and ORB for feature extraction is presented here. The study found that the suggested method can accurately discriminate between normal and focal EEG signals, improving patient outcomes through early and accurate epilepsy diagnosis.

Epileptic Seizure Detection and Prediction in EEGs Using Power Spectra Density Parameterization

Power spectrum analysis is one of the effective tools for classifying epileptic signals based on electroencephalography (EEG) recordings. However, the conflation of periodic and aperiodic components within the EEG may presents an obstacle to epilepsy detection or prediction. In this paper, we explored the significance of the periodic and aperiodic components of the EEG power spectrum for the detection and prediction of epilepsy respectively. We use a power spectrum density parameterization method to separate the periodic and aperiodic components of the signals, and validate their roles in epilepsy detection and prediction on two public datasets. The average classification accuracy of the periodic and aperiodic components for 10 clinical tasks on the Bonn EEG database were 73.9% and 96.68%, respectively, and increases to 98.88% when combined. For 22 patients on the CHB-MIT Long-term EEG database, the combined features achieve an average detection accuracy of 99.95% and successfully predict all seizures with low false prediction rates. We conclude that both the periodic and aperiodic components of the EEG power spectrum contributed to discriminating different stages of epilepsy, but the aperiodic neural activity played a decisive role in classification. This discovery has significant implications for diagnosing epileptic seizures and providing personalized brain activity information to improve the accuracy and efficiency of epilepsy detection.

Overview of methods and available tools used in complex brain disorders

Complex brain disorders, including Alzheimer's dementia, sleep disorders, and epilepsy, are chronic conditions that have high prevalence individually and in combination, increasing mortality risk, and contributing to the socioeconomic burden of patients, their families and, their communities at large. Although some literature reviews have been conducted mentioning the available methods and tools used for supporting the diagnosis of complex brain disorders and processing different files, there are still limitations. Specifically, these research works have focused primarily on one single brain disorder, i.e., sleep disorders or dementia or epilepsy. Additionally, existing research initiatives mentioning some tools, focus mainly on one single type of data, i.e., electroencephalography (EEG) signals or actigraphies or Magnetic Resonance Imaging, and so on. To tackle the aforementioned limitations, this is the first study conducting a comprehensive literature review of the available methods used for supporting the diagnosis of multiple complex brain disorders, i.e., Alzheimer's dementia, sleep disorders, epilepsy. Also, to the best of our knowledge, we present the first study conducting a comprehensive literature review of all the available tools, which can be exploited for processing multiple types of data, including EEG, actigraphies, and MRIs, and receiving valuable forms of information which can be used for differentiating people in a healthy control group and patients suffering from complex brain disorders. Additionally, the present study highlights both the benefits and limitations of the existing available tools.

Information-Theoretic Approaches in EEG Correlates of Auditory Perceptual Awareness under Informational Masking

In informational masking paradigms, the successful segregation between the target and masker creates auditory perceptual awareness. The dynamics of the build-up of auditory perception is based on a set of interactions between bottom-up and top-down processes that generate neuronal modifications within the brain network activity. These neural changes are studied here using event-related potentials (ERPs), entropy, and integrated information, leading to several measures applied to electroencephalogram signals. The main findings show that the auditory perceptual awareness stimulated functional activation in the fronto-temporo-parietal brain network through (i) negative temporal and positive centro-parietal ERP components; (ii) an enhanced processing of multi-information in the temporal cortex; and (iii) an increase in informational content in the fronto-central cortex. These different results provide information-based experimental evidence about the functional activation of the fronto-temporo-parietal brain network during auditory perceptual awareness.

Effective Early Detection of Epileptic Seizures through EEG Signals Using Classification Algorithms Based on t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding and K-Means

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder in the activity of brain cells that leads to seizures. An electroencephalogram (EEG) can detect seizures as it contains physiological information of the neural activity of the brain. However, visual examination of EEG by experts is time consuming, and their diagnoses may even contradict each other. Thus, an automated computer-aided diagnosis for EEG diagnostics is necessary. Therefore, this paper proposes an effective approach for the early detection of epilepsy. The proposed approach involves the extraction of important features and classification. First, signal components are decomposed to extract the features via the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) method. Principal component analysis (PCA) and the t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) algorithm were applied to reduce the dimensions and focus on the most important features. Subsequently, K-means clustering + PCA and K-means clustering + t-SNE were used to divide the dataset into subgroups to reduce the dimensions and focus on the most important representative features of epilepsy. The features extracted from these steps were fed to extreme gradient boosting, K-nearest neighbors (K-NN), decision tree (DT), random forest (RF) and multilayer perceptron (MLP) classifiers. The experimental results demonstrated that the proposed approach provides superior results to those of existing studies. During the testing phase, the RF classifier with DWT and PCA achieved an accuracy of 97.96%, precision of 99.1%, recall of 94.41% and F1 score of 97.41%. Moreover, the RF classifier with DWT and t-SNE attained an accuracy of 98.09%, precision of 99.1%, recall of 93.9% and F1 score of 96.21%. In comparison, the MLP classifier with PCA + K-means reached an accuracy of 98.98%, precision of 99.16%, recall of 95.69% and F1 score of 97.4%.

Feature Extraction From Single-Channel EEG Using Tsfresh and Stacked Ensemble Approach for Sleep Stage Classification

The smart world under Industry 4.0 is witnessing a notable spurt in sleep disorders and sleep-related issues in patients. Artificial intelligence and IoT are taking a giant leap in connecting sleep patients remotely with healthcare providers. The contemporary single-channel-based monitoring devices play a tremendous role in predicting sleep quality and related issues. Handcrafted feature extraction is a time-consuming job in machine learning-based automatic sleep classification. The proposed single-channel work uses Tsfresh to extract features from both the EEG channels (Pz-oz and Fpz-Cz) of the SEDFEx database individually to realise a single-channel EEG. The adopted mRMR feature selection approach selected 55 features from the extracted 787 features. A stacking ensemble classifier achieved 95%, 94%, 91%, and 88% accuracy using stratified 5-fold validation in 2, 3, 4, and 5 class classification employing healthy subjects data. The outcome of the experiments indicates that Tsfresh is an excellent tool to extract standard features from EEG signals.

Similarity-Based Adaptive Window for Improving Classification of Epileptic Seizures with Imbalance EEG Data Stream

Data stream mining techniques have recently received increasing research interest, especially in medical data classification. An unbalanced representation of the classification's targets in these data is a common challenge because classification techniques are biased toward the major class. Many methods have attempted to address this problem but have been exaggeratedly biased toward the minor class. In this work, we propose a method for balancing the presence of the minor class within the current window of the data stream while preserving the data's original majority as much as possible. The proposed method utilized similarity analysis for selecting specific instances from the previous window. This group of minor-class was then added to the current window's instances. Implementing the proposed method using the Siena dataset showed promising results compared to the Skew ensemble method and some other research methods.

A combination of supervised dimensionality reduction and learning methods to forecast solar radiation

Machine learning is routinely used to forecast solar radiation from inputs, which are forecasts of meteorological variables provided by numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, on a spatially distributed grid. However, the number of features resulting from these grids is usually large, especially if several vertical levels are included. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) is one of the simplest and most widely-used methods to extract features and reduce dimensionality in renewable energy forecasting, although this method has some limitations. First, it performs a global linear analysis, and second it is an unsupervised method. Locality Preserving Projection (LPP) overcomes the locality problem, and recently the Linear Optimal Low-Rank (LOL) method has extended Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) to be applicable when the number of features is larger than the number of samples. Supervised Nonnegative Matrix Factorization (SNMF) also achieves this goal extending the Nonnegative Matrix Factorization (NMF) framework to integrate the logistic regression loss function. In this article we try to overcome all these issues together by proposing a Supervised Local Maximum Variance Preserving (SLMVP) method, a supervised non-linear method for feature extraction and dimensionality reduction. PCA, LPP, LOL, SNMF and SLMVP have been compared on Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) and Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) radiation data at two different Iberian locations: Seville and Lisbon. Results show that for both kinds of radiation (GHI and DNI) and the two locations, SLMVP produces smaller MAE errors than PCA, LPP, LOL, and SNMF, around 4.92% better for Seville and 3.12% for Lisbon. It has also been shown that, although SLMVP, PCA, and LPP benefit from using a non-linear regression method (Gradient Boosting in this work), this benefit is larger for PCA and LPP because SMLVP is able to perform non-linear transformations of inputs.

Automatic Epileptic Seizure Detection Using Graph-Regularized Non-Negative Matrix Factorization and Kernel-Based Robust Probabilistic Collaborative Representation

Automatic seizure detection system can serve as a meaningful clinical tool for the treatment and analysis of epilepsy using electroencephalogram (EEG) and has obtained rapid development. An automatic detection of epileptic seizure method based on kernel-based robust probabilistic collaborative representation (ProCRC) combined with graph-regularized non-negative matrix factorization (GNMF) is proposed in this work. The raw EEG signals are pre-processed through the wavelet transform to obtain time-frequency distribution of EEG signals as preliminary feature information and GNMF is further employed for dimension reduction, retaining and enhancing the productive feature information of EEG signals. Then, the test sample is represented using robust ProCRC that can decide whether the testing sample belongs to each class (seizure or non-seizure) by jointly maximizing the likelihood. In addition, the kernel trick is applied to improve the separability of non-linear high dimensional EEG signals in robust ProCRC. Finally, post-processing techniques are introduced to generate more accurate and reliable results. The average epoch-based sensitivity of 96.48%, event-based sensitivity of 93.65% and specificity of 98.55% are acquired in this method, which is evaluated on the public Freiburg EEG database.

Wavelet Based Filters for Artifact Elimination in Electroencephalography Signal: A Review

Electroencephalography (EEG) is a diagnostic test that records and measures the electrical activity of the human brain. Research investigating human behaviors and conditions using EEG has increased from year to year. Therefore, an efficient approach is vital to process the EEG dataset to improve the output signal quality. The wavelet is one of the well-known approaches for processing the EEG signal in time-frequency domain analysis. The wavelet is better than the traditional Fourier Transform because it has good time-frequency localized properties and multi-resolution analysis where the transient information of an EEG signal can be extracted efficiently. Thus, this review article aims to comprehensively describe the application of the wavelet method in denoising the EEG signal based on recent research. This review begins with a brief overview of the basic theory and characteristics of EEG and the wavelet transform method. Then, several wavelet-based methods commonly applied in EEG dataset denoising are described and a considerable number of the latest published EEG research works with wavelet applications are reviewed. Besides, the challenges that exist in current EEG-based wavelet method research are discussed. Finally, alternative solutions to mitigate the issues are recommended.

Using Constrained Square-Root Cubature Kalman Filter for Quantifying the Severity of Epileptic Activities in Mice

(1) Background: Quantification of severity of epileptic activities, especially during electrical stimulation, is an unmet need for seizure control and evaluation of therapeutic efficacy. In this study, a parameter ratio derived from constrained square-root cubature Kalman filter (CSCKF) was formulated to quantify the excitability of local neural network and compared with three commonly used indicators, namely, band power, Teager energy operator, and sample entropy, to objectively determine their effectiveness in quantifying the severity of epileptiform discharges in mice. (2) Methods: A set of one normal and four types of epileptic EEGs was generated by a mathematical model. EEG data of epileptiform discharges during two types of electrical stimulation were recorded in 20 mice. Then, EEG segments of 5 s in length before, during and after the real and sham stimulation were collected. Both simulated and experimental data were used to compare the consistency and differences among the performance indicators. (3) Results: For the experimental data, the results of the four indicators were inconsistent during both types of electrical stimulation, although there was a trend that seizure severity changed with the indicators. For the simulated data, when the simulated EEG segments were used, the results of all four indicators were similar; however, this trend did not match the trend of excitability of the model network. In the model output which retained the DC component, except for the CSCKF parameter ratio, the results of the other three indicators were almost identical to those using the simulated EEG. For CSCKF, the parameter ratio faithfully reflected the excitability of the neural network. (4) Conclusion: For common EEG, CSCKF did not outperform other commonly used performance indicators. However, for EEG with a preserved DC component, CSCKF had the potential to quantify the excitability of the neural network and the associated severity of epileptiform discharges.

Improved CEEMDAN, GA, and SVR Model for Oil Price Forecasting

Accurate prediction of crude oil prices (COPs) is a challenge for academia and industry. Therefore, the present research developed a new CEEMDAN-GA-SVR hybrid model to predict COPs, incorporating complete ensemble empirical mode decomposition with adaptive noise (CEEMDAN), a genetic algorithm (GA), and support vector regression machine (SVR). First, our team utilized CEEMDAN to realize the decomposition of a raw series of COPs into a group of comparatively simpler subseries. Second, SVR was utilized to predict values for every decomposed subseries separately. Owing to the intricate parametric settings of SVR, GA was employed to achieve the parametric optimisation of SVR during forecast. Then, our team assembled the forecasted values of the entire subseries as the forecasted values of the CEEMDAN-GA-SVR model. After a series of experiments and comparison of the results, we discovered that the CEEMDAN-GA-SVR model remarkably outperformed single and ensemble benchmark models, as displayed by a case study finished based on a time series of weekly Brent COPs.

Neuronal oscillations predict deep brain stimulation outcome in Parkinson's disease

BACKGROUND

Neuronal oscillations are linked to symptoms of Parkinson's disease. This relation can be exploited for optimizing deep brain stimulation (DBS), e.g. by informing a device or human about the optimal location, time and intensity of stimulation. Whether oscillations predict individual DBS outcome is not clear so far.

OBJECTIVE

To predict motor symptom improvement from subthalamic power and subthalamo-cortical coherence.

METHODS

We applied machine learning techniques to simultaneously recorded magnetoencephalography and local field potential data from 36 patients with Parkinson's disease. Gradient-boosted tree learning was applied in combination with feature importance analysis to generate and understand out-of-sample predictions.

RESULTS

A few features sufficed for making accurate predictions. A model operating on five coherence features, for example, achieved correlations of r > 0.8 between actual and predicted outcomes. Coherence comprised more information in less features than subthalamic power, although in general their information content was comparable. Both signals predicted akinesia/rigidity reduction best. The most important local feature was subthalamic high-beta power (20-35 Hz). The most important connectivity features were subthalamo-parietal coherence in the very high frequency band (>200 Hz) and subthalamo-parietal coherence in low-gamma band (36-60 Hz). Successful prediction was not due to the model inferring distance to target or symptom severity from neuronal oscillations.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates for the first time that neuronal oscillations are predictive of DBS outcome. Coherence between subthalamic and parietal oscillations are particularly informative. These results highlight the clinical relevance of inter-areal synchrony in basal ganglia-cortex loops and might facilitate further improvements of DBS in the future.

Epilepsy EEG classification method based on supervised locality preserving canonical correlation analysis

Existing epileptic seizure automatic detection systems are often troubled by high-dimensional electroencephalogram (EEG) features. High-dimensional features will not only bring redundant information and noise, but also reduce the response speed of the system. In order to solve this problem, supervised locality preserving canonical correlation analysis (SLPCCA), which can effectively use both sample category information and nonlinear relationships between features, is introduced. And an epileptic signal classification method based on SLPCCA is proposed. Firstly, the power spectral density and the fluctuation index of the frequency slice wavelet transform are extracted as features from the EEG fragments. Next, SLPCCA obtains the optimal projection direction by maximizing the weight correlation between the paired samples in the class and their neighbors. And the projection combination of original features in the optimal direction is the fusion feature. The fusion features are then input into LS-SVM for training and testing. This method is verified on the Bonn dataset and the CHB-MIT dataset and gets good results. On various classification tasks of Bonn data set, the proposed method achieves an average classification accuracy of 99.16%. On the binary classification task of the inter-seizure and seizure epileptic EEG of the CHB-MIT dataset, the proposed method achieves an average accuracy of 97.18%. The experimental results show that the algorithm achieves excellent results compared with several state-of-the-art methods. In addition, the parameter sensitivity of SLPCCA and the relationship between the dimension of the fusion features and the classification results are discussed. Therefore, the stability and effectiveness of the method are further verified.

Performance Analysis of Entropy Methods in Detecting Epileptic Seizure from Surface Electroencephalograms

Physiological signals like Electrocardiography (ECG) and Electroencephalography (EEG) are complex and nonlinear in nature. To retrieve diagnostic information from these, we need the help of nonlinear methods of analysis. Entropy estimation is a very popular approach in the nonlinear category, where entropy estimates are used as features for signal classification and analysis. In this study, we analyze and compare the performances of four entropy methods; namely Distribution entropy (DistEn), Shannon entropy (ShanEn), Renyi entropy (RenEn) and LempelZiv complexity (LempelZiv) as classification features to detect epileptic seizure (ES) from surface Electroencephalography (sEEG) signal. Experiments were conducted on sEEG data from 23 subjects, obtained from the CHB-MIT database of PhysioNet. ShanEn, RenEn and LempelZiv entropy are found to be potential features for accurate and consistent detection of ES from sEEG, across multiple channels and subjects.

Detection of spontaneous seizures in EEGs in multiple experimental mouse models of epilepsy

Objective.Electroencephalography (EEG) is a key tool for non-invasive recording of brain activity and the diagnosis of epilepsy. EEG monitoring is also widely employed in rodent models to track epilepsy development and evaluate experimental therapies and interventions. Whereas automated seizure detection algorithms have been developed for clinical EEG, preclinical versions face challenges of inter-model differences and lack of EEG standardization, leaving researchers relying on time-consuming visual annotation of signals.Approach.In this study, a machine learning-based seizure detection approach, 'Epi-AI', which can semi-automate EEG analysis in multiple mouse models of epilepsy was developed. Twenty-six mice with a total EEG recording duration of 6451 h were used to develop and test the Epi-AI approach. EEG recordings were obtained from two mouse models of kainic acid-induced epilepsy (Models I and III), a genetic model of Dravet syndrome (Model II) and a pilocarpine mouse model of epilepsy (Model IV). The Epi-AI algorithm was compared against two threshold-based approaches for seizure detection, a local Teager-Kaiser energy operator (TKEO) approach and a global Teager-Kaiser energy operator-discrete wavelet transform (TKEO-DWT) combination approach.Main results.Epi-AI demonstrated a superior sensitivity, 91.4%-98.8%, and specificity, 93.1%-98.8%, in Models I-III, to both of the threshold-based approaches which performed well on individual mouse models but did not generalise well across models. The performance of the TKEO approach in Models I-III ranged from 66.9%-91.3% sensitivity and 60.8%-97.5% specificity to detect spontaneous seizures when compared with expert annotations. The sensitivity and specificity of the TKEO-DWT approach were marginally better than the TKEO approach in Models I-III at 73.2%-80.1% and 75.8%-98.1%, respectively. When tested on EEG from Model IV which was not used in developing the Epi-AI approach, Epi-AI was able to identify seizures with 76.3% sensitivity and 98.1% specificity.Significance.Epi-AI has the potential to provide fast, objective and reproducible semi-automated analysis of multiple types of seizure in long-duration EEG recordings in rodents.

Multimodal analysis of electroencephalographic and electrooculographic signals

Electrooculography (EOG) is a method to concurrently obtain electrophysiological signals accompanying an Electroencephalography (EEG), where both methods have a common cerebral pattern and imply a similar medical significance. The most common electrophysiological signal source is EOG that contaminated the EEG signal and thereby decreases the accuracy of measurement and the predicated signal strength. In this study, we introduce a method to improve the correction efficiency for EOG artifacts (EOAs) on raw EEG recordings: We retrieve cerebral information from three EEG signals with high system performance and accuracy by applying feature engineering and a novel machine-learning (ML) procedure. To this end, we use two adaptive algorithms for signal decomposition to remove EOAs from multichannel EEG signals: empirical mode decomposition (EMD) and complete ensemble empirical mode decomposition (CEEMD), both using the Hilbert-Huang transform. First, the signal components are decomposed into multiple intrinsic mode functions. Next, statistical feature extraction and dimension reduction using principal component analysis are employed to select optimal feature sets for the ML procedure that is based on classification and regression models. The proposed CEEMD algorithm enhances the accuracy compared to the EMD algorithm and considerably improves the multi-sensory classification of EEG signals. Models of three different categories are applied, and the classification is based on a K-nearest neighbor (k-NN) algorithm, a decision tree (DT) algorithm, and a support vector machine (SVM) algorithm with accuracies of 94% for K-NN, 75% for DT, and 69% for SVM. For each classification model, a regression learner is used to assist as an evidence rule for the proposed artificial system and to influence the learning process from classification and regression models. The regression learning algorithms applied include algorithms based on an ensemble of trees (ET), a DT, and a SVM. We find that the ET-based regression model exhibits a determination coefficient R² = 1.00 outperforming the other two approaches with R² = 0.80 for DT and R² = 0.76 for SVM.

Wavelet Ridges in EEG Diagnostic Features Extraction: Epilepsy Long-Time Monitoring and Rehabilitation after Traumatic Brain Injury

Interchannel EEG synchronization, as well as its violation, is an important diagnostic sign of a number of diseases. In particular, during an epileptic seizure, such synchronization occurs starting from some pairs of channels up to many pairs in a generalized seizure. Additionally, for example, after traumatic brain injury, the destruction of interneuronal connections occurs, which leads to a violation of interchannel synchronization when performing motor or cognitive tests. Within the framework of a unified approach to the analysis of interchannel EEG synchronization using the ridges of wavelet spectra, two problems were solved. First, the segmentation of the initial data of long-term monitoring of scalp EEG with various artifacts into fragments suspicious of epileptic seizures in order to reduce the total duration of the fragments analyzed by the doctor. Second, assessments of recovery after rehabilitation of cognitive functions in patients with moderate traumatic brain injury. In the first task, the initial EEG was segmented into fragments in which at least two channels were synchronized, and by the adaptive threshold method into fragments with a high value of the EEG power spectral density. Overlapping in time synchronized fragments with fragments of high spectral power density was determined. As a result, the total duration of the fragments for analysis by the doctor was reduced by more than 60 times. In the second task, the network of phase-related EEG channels was determined during the cognitive test before and after rehabilitation. Calculation-logical and spatial-pattern cognitive tests were used. The positive dynamics of rehabilitation was determined during the initialization of interhemispheric connections and connections in the frontal cortex of the brain.

Automated FBSE-EWT based learning framework for detection of epileptic seizures using time-segmented EEG signals

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder that has severely affected many people's lives across the world. Electroencephalogram (EEG) signals are used to characterize the brain's state and detect various disorders. The EEG signals are non-stationary and non-linear in nature. Therefore, it is challenging to accurately process and learn from the recorded EEG signals in order to detect disorders like epilepsy. This paper proposed an automated learning framework using the Fourier-Bessel series expansion-based empirical wavelet transform (FBSE-EWT) method for detecting epileptic seizures from EEG signals. The scale-space boundary detection method was adopted to segment the Fourier-Bessel series expansion (FBSE) spectrum of multiple frame-size time-segmented EEG signals. Multiple frame-size time-segmented EEG signal's analysis was done using four different frame sizes: full, half, quarter, and half-quarter length of recorded EEG signals. Two different time-segmentation approaches were investigated on EEG signals: 1) segmenting signals based on multiple frame-size and 2) segmenting signals based on multiple frame-size with zero-padding the remaining signal. The FBSE-EWT method was applied to decompose the EEG signals into narrow sub-band signals. Features such as line-length (LL), log-energy-entropy (LEnt), and norm-entropy (NEnt) were computed from various frequency range sub-band signals. The relief-F feature ranking method was employed to select the most significant features; this reduces the computational burden of the models. The top-ranked accumulated features were used for classification using least square-support machine learning (LS-SVM), support vector machine (SVM), k-nearest neighbor (k-NN), and ensemble bagged tree classifiers. The proposed framework for epileptic seizure detection was evaluated on two publicly available benchmark EEG datasets: the Bonn EEG dataset and Children's Hospital Boston (CHB) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), well known as the CHB-MIT scalp EEG dataset. Training and testing of the models were performed using the 10-fold cross-validation technique. The FBSE-EWT based learning framework was compared with other state-of-the-art methods using both datasets. Experimental results showed that the proposed framework achieved 100 % classification accuracy on the Bonn EEG dataset, whereas 99.84 % classification accuracy on the CHB-MIT scalp EEG dataset.

Automatic epileptic seizure detection via Stein kernel-based sparse representation

Epileptic seizure detection is of great significance in the diagnosis of epilepsy and relieving the heavy workload of visual inspection of electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings. This paper presents a novel method for seizure detection using the Stein kernel-based sparse representation (SR) for EEG recordings. Different from the traditional SR scheme that works with vector data in Euclidean space, the Stein kernel-based SR framework is constructed for seizure detection in the space of the symmetric positive definite (SPD) matrices, which form a Riemannian manifold. Due to the non-Euclidean geometry of the Riemannian manifold, the Stein kernel on the manifold permits the embedding of the manifold in a high-dimensional reproducing kernel Hilbert space (RKHS) to perform SR. In the Stein kernel-based SR framework, EEG samples are described by SPD matrices in the form of covariance descriptors (CovDs). Then, a test EEG sample is sparsely represented on the training set, and the test sample is classified as a member of the class, which leads to the minimum reconstructed residual. Finally, by using three widely used EEG datasets to evaluate the detection performance of the proposed method, the experimental results demonstrate that it achieves good classification accuracy on each dataset. Furthermore, the fast computational speed of the Stein kernel-based SR also meets the basic requirements for real-time seizure detection.

Statistical Features in High-Frequency Bands of Interictal iEEG Work Efficiently in Identifying the Seizure Onset Zone in Patients with Focal Epilepsy

The design of a computer-aided system for identifying the seizure onset zone (SOZ) from interictal and ictal electroencephalograms (EEGs) is desired by epileptologists. This study aims to introduce the statistical features of high-frequency components (HFCs) in interictal intracranial electroencephalograms (iEEGs) to identify the possible seizure onset zone (SOZ) channels. It is known that the activity of HFCs in interictal iEEGs, including ripple and fast ripple bands, is associated with epileptic seizures. This paper proposes to decompose multi-channel interictal iEEG signals into a number of subbands. For every 20 s segment, twelve features are computed from each subband. A mutual information (MI)-based method with grid search was applied to select the most prominent bands and features. A gradient-boosting decision tree-based algorithm called LightGBM was used to score each segment of the channels and these were averaged together to achieve a final score for each channel. The possible SOZ channels were localized based on the higher value channels. The experimental results with eleven epilepsy patients were tested to observe the efficiency of the proposed design compared to the state-of-the-art methods.

Automated epilepsy detection techniques from electroencephalogram signals: a review study

Epilepsy is a serious neurological condition which contemplates as top 5 reasons for avoidable mortality from ages 5-29 in the worldwide. The avoidable deaths due to epilepsy can be reduced by developing efficient automated epilepsy detection or prediction machines or software. To develop an automated epilepsy detection framework, it is essential to properly understand the existing techniques and their benefit as well as detriment also. This paper aims to provide insight on the information about the existing epilepsy detection and classification techniques as they are crucial for supporting clinical-decision in the course of epilepsy treatment. This review study accentuate on the existing epilepsy detection approaches and their drawbacks. This information presented in this article will be helpful to the neuroscientist, researchers as well as to technicians for assisting them in selecting the reliable and appropriate techniques for analyzing epilepsy and developing an automated software system of epilepsy identification.

Electricity Price Forecasting Based on Self-Adaptive Decomposition and Heterogeneous Ensemble Learning

Electricity price forecasting plays a vital role in the financial markets. This paper proposes a self-adaptive, decomposed, heterogeneous, and ensemble learning model for short-term electricity price forecasting one, two, and three-months-ahead in the Brazilian market. Exogenous variables, such as supply, lagged prices and demand are considered as inputs signals of the forecasting model. Firstly, the coyote optimization algorithm is adopted to tune the hyperparameters of complementary ensemble empirical mode decomposition in the pre-processing phase. Next, three machine learning models, including extreme learning machine, gradient boosting machine, and support vector regression models, as well as Gaussian process, are designed with the intent of handling the components obtained through the signal decomposition approach with focus on time series forecasting. The individual forecasting models are directly integrated in order to obtain the final forecasting prices one to three-months-ahead. In this case, a grid of forecasting models is obtained. The best forecasting model is the one that has better generalization out-of-sample. The empirical results show the efficiency of the proposed model. Additionally, it can achieve forecasting errors lower than 4.2% in terms of symmetric mean absolute percentage error. The ranking of importance of the variables, from the smallest to the largest is, lagged prices, demand, and supply. This paper provided useful insights for multi-step-ahead forecasting in the electrical market, once the proposed model can enhance forecasting accuracy and stability.

Mechanical Fault Diagnosis of a High Voltage Circuit Breaker Based on High-Efficiency Time-Domain Feature Extraction with Entropy Features

The fault samples of high voltage circuit breakers are few, the vibration signals are complex, the existing research methods cannot extract the effective information in the features, and it is easy to overfit, slow training, and other problems. To improve the efficiency of feature extraction of a circuit breaker vibration signal and the accuracy of circuit breaker state recognition, a Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM) method based on time-domain feature extraction with multi-type entropy features for mechanical fault diagnosis of the high voltage circuit breaker is proposed. First, the original vibration signal of the high voltage circuit breaker is segmented in the time domain; then, 16 features including 5 kinds of entropy features are extracted directly from each part of the original signal after time-domain segmentation, and the original feature set is constructed. Second, the Split importance value of each feature is calculated, and the optimal feature subset is determined by the forward feature selection, taking the classification accuracy of LightGBM as the decision variable. After that, the LightGBM classifier is constructed based on the feature vector of the optimal feature subset, which can accurately distinguish the mechanical fault state of the high voltage circuit breaker. The experimental results show that the new method has the advantages of high efficiency of feature extraction and high accuracy of fault identification.

Daily Crude Oil Price Forecasting Based on Improved CEEMDAN, SCA, and RVFL: A Case Study in WTI Oil Market

Crude oil is one of the strategic energies and plays an increasingly critical role effecting on the world economic development. The fluctuations of crude oil prices are caused by various extrinsic and intrinsic factors and usually demonstrate complex characteristics. Therefore, it is a great challenge for accurately forecasting crude oil prices. In this study, a self-optimizing ensemble learning model incorporating the improved complete ensemble empirical mode decomposition with adaptive noise (ICEEMDAN), sine cosine algorithm (SCA), and random vector functional link (RVFL) neural network, namely ICEEMDAN-SCA-RVFL, is proposed to forecast crude oil prices. Firstly, we employ ICEEMDAN to decompose the raw series of crude oil prices into a group of relatively simple subseries. Secondly, RVFL is used to forecast the target values for each decomposed subseries individually. Due to the complex parameter settings of ICEEMDAN and RVFL, SCA is introduced to optimize the parameters for ICEEMDAN and RVFL in the above decomposition and prediction stages simultaneously. Finally, we assemble the predicted values of all individual subseries as the final predicted values of crude oil prices. Our proposed ICEEMDAN-SCA-RVFL significantly outperforms the single and ensemble benchmark models, as demonstrated by a case study conducted using the time series of West Texas Intermediate (WTI) daily crude oil spot prices.