Ginsenoside CK Inhibits Hypoxia-Induced Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transformation through the HIF-1α/NF-κB Feedback Pathway in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Treatment of ulcerative colitis via the in situ restoration of local immune and microbial homeostasis by oral administration of Tremella polysaccharide drug-carrying hydrogel

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a prevalent inflammatory bowel disease, and conventional treatments, such as anti-inflammatory medications and surgery, often prove inadequate due to frequent recurrences and various complications. To alleviate patient suffering, there is an urgent need for a therapeutic system that specifically delivers drugs to the colon for wound healing, inflammation relief, and restoration of microbial homeostasis. In this paper, we developed a Tremella polysaccharide drug-carrying hydrogel that adheres to the inflamed colonic mucosa, forming an effective artificial barrier and releasing the drug in situ to restore local immune and microbial balance. The hydrogel backbone was synthesized through the chemical cross-linking of Tremella polysaccharide with 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether in an alkaline environment. During this process, Soluplus® and TPGS-encapsulated ginsenoside compound K adhered to the hydrogel backbone due to electrostatic attraction. The enhanced adhesion following cross-linking enables the hydrogel to stably attach to the inflamed colonic mucosa, releasing mixed micelles that improve drug penetration and absorption by inhibiting the cellular efflux protein P-glycoprotein. This mechanism promotes local immune recovery and eliminates harmful intestinal flora, providing significant relief from UC symptoms. This natural polysaccharide-based hydrogel represents a highly effective oral treatment for UC.

Ginsenoside Rb1 Deters Cell Proliferation, Induces Apoptosis, Alleviates Oxidative Stress, and Antimetastasis in Oral Squamous Carcinoma Cells

There are numerous therapeutic applications for ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1), the primary saponin derived from ginseng root. According to earlier research, ginsenoside Rb1 causes apoptosis and reduces the cell cycle. Its adverse effects, especially those on the development of the embryo, still need to be thoroughly studied. A host's lifestyle choices, including smoking, drinking too much alcohol, using tobacco products, and having an HPV infection, can increase the risk of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), one of the most prevalent malignancies of the oral cavity. To address this challenge, this investigation focuses on the design of GRb1 for treating OSCC. In vitro cytotoxicity studies confirmed that GRb1 was more effective in PCI-9A and PCI-13 cells, with reduced toxicity in non-cancerous cells. Further verification of cellular morphology was achieved through various biochemical staining methods. The mechanism of cell death was investigated by Annexin V-FITC and PI methods. Additionally, the antimetastatic attributes of GRb1 have been evaluated using both migration scratch and Transwell migration assays, which have collectively revealed excellent antimetastatic potential. The DNA fragmentation of the PCI-9A and PCI-13 cells was assessed using a comet assay. Ginsenoside Rb1 improved ROS levels and caused mitochondrial membrane potential alterations and DNA damage, which resulted in apoptosis. OSCC administration significantly reduced the levels of SOD, GSH, GPx, and CAT, increasing the levels of PCI-9A and PCI-13 cells, while GRb1 improved this situation. Therefore, we propose that Ginsenoside Rb1 could be an alternative therapeutic strategy for OSCC therapy.

Mechanism of action of protopanaxadiol ginsenosides on hepatocellular carcinoma and network pharmacological analysis

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most prevalent malignancies globally, posing a major challenge to global health care. Protopanaxadiol ginsenosides (PDs) have been believed to significantly improve liver diseases. PDs, such as Rg3, have been developed as a new class of anti-cancer drugs. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rd, Rg3, and Rh2 exhibit effective anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activities. Studies have confirmed that PDs could be used to treat HCC. However, the mechanism of action of PDs on HCC remains unclear. In the study, we reviewed the anti-HCC effects and mechanisms of PDs including Rb1, Rd, Rg3, Rg5, Rh2, Rk1, and Compound K (CK). Then, we searched for relevant targets of PDs and HCC from databases and enriched them for analysis. Subsequently, molecular docking was simulated to reveal molecular mechanisms. We found that PDs may treat HCC through multiple signaling pathways and related targets. PDs could inhibit the proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of HCC while promoting apoptosis and inducing differentiation. In conclusion, this review and network pharmacological analysis might offer a direction for in-depth research on related mechanisms. These insights will aid in the direction of further pharmacological studies and the development of safe and effective clinical drugs.

Research Progress on Dendritic Cells in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Immune Microenvironments

Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting cells that play a crucial role in initiating immune responses by cross-presenting relevant antigens to initial T cells. The activation of DCs is a crucial step in inducing anti-tumor immunity. Upon recognition and uptake of tumor antigens, activated DCs present these antigens to naive T cells, thereby stimulating T cell-mediated immune responses and enhancing their ability to attack tumors. It is particularly noted that DCs are able to cross-present foreign antigens to major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules, prompting CD8+ T cells to proliferate and differentiate into cytotoxic T cells. In the malignant progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the inactivation of DCs plays an important role, and the activation of DCs is particularly important in anti-HCC immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms of DCs activation in HCC, the involved regulatory factors and strategies to activate DCs in HCC immunotherapy. It provides a basis for the study of HCC immunotherapy through DCs activation.

Transcription factor PgNAC72 activates DAMMARENEDIOL SYNTHASE expression to promote ginseng saponin biosynthesis

Ginsenosides, the primary bioactive constituents in ginseng (Panax ginseng), possess substantial pharmacological potential and are in high demand in the market. The plant hormone methyl jasmonate (MeJA) effectively elicits ginsenoside biosynthesis in P. ginseng, though the regulatory mechanism remains largely unexplored. NAC transcription factors are critical in intricate plant regulatory networks and participate in numerous plant physiological activities. In this study, we identified a MeJA-responsive NAC transcription factor gene, PgNAC72, from a transcriptome library produced from MeJA-treated P. ginseng callus. Predominantly expressed in P. ginseng flowers, PgNAC72 localizes to the nucleus. Overexpressing PgNAC72 (OE-PgNAC72) in P. ginseng callus notably elevated total saponin levels, particularly dammarane-type ginsenosides, by upregulating dammarenediol synthase (PgDDS), encoding a key enzyme in the ginsenoside biosynthesis pathway. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays and dual-luciferase assays confirmed that PgNAC72 binds to the NAC-binding elements in the PgDDS promoter, thereby activating its transcription. Further RNA-seq and terpenoid metabolomic data in the OE-PgNAC72 line confirmed that PgNAC72 enhances ginsenoside biosynthesis. These findings uncover a regulatory role of PgNAC72 in MeJA-mediated ginsenoside biosynthesis, providing insights into the ginsenoside regulatory network and presenting a valuable target gene for metabolic engineering.

Therapeutic Effects of Natural Products on Liver Cancer and Their Potential Mechanisms

Liver cancer ranks third globally among causes of cancer-related deaths, posing a significant public health challenge. However, current treatments are inadequate, prompting a growing demand for novel, safe, and effective therapies. Natural products (NPs) have emerged as promising candidates in drug development due to their diverse biological activities, low toxicity, and minimal side effects. This paper begins by reviewing existing treatment methods and drugs for liver cancer. It then summarizes the therapeutic effects of NPs sourced from various origins on liver cancer. Finally, we analyze the potential mechanisms of NPs in treating liver cancer, including inhibition of angiogenesis, migration, and invasion; regulation of the cell cycle; induction of apoptosis, autophagy, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis; influence on tumor metabolism; immune regulation; regulation of intestinal function; and regulation of key signaling pathways. This systematic review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of NPs research in liver cancer treatment, offering a foundation for further development and application in pharmaceuticals and functional foods.

Re-exploration of immunotherapy targeting EMT of hepatocellular carcinoma: Starting from the NF-κB pathway

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most common malignancies worldwide, and its high morbidity and mortality have brought a heavy burden to the global public health system. Due to the concealment of its onset, the limitation of treatment, the acquisition of multi-drug resistance and radiation resistance, the treatment of HCC cannot achieve satisfactory results. Epithelial mesenchymal transformation (EMT) is a key process that induces progression, distant metastasis, and therapeutic resistance to a variety of malignant tumors, including HCC. Therefore, targeting EMT has become a promising tumor immunotherapy method for HCC. The NF-κB pathway is a key regulatory pathway for EMT. Targeting this pathway has shown potential to inhibit HCC infiltration, invasion, distant metastasis, and therapeutic resistance. At present, there are still some controversies about this pathway and new ideas of combined therapy, which need to be further explored. This article reviews the progress of immunotherapy in improving EMT development in HCC cells by exploring the mechanism of regulating EMT.

Synergistic anticancer effects of ginsenoside CK and gefitinib against gefitinib-resistant NSCLC by regulating the balance of angiogenic factors through HIF-1α/VEGF

Drug resistance is a serious problem for gefitinib in the treatment of lung cancer. Ginsenoside CK, a metabolite of diol ginsenosides, have many excellent pharmacological activities, but whether ginsenoside CK can overcome gefitinib resistance remains unclear. In our study, the sensitizing activity of ginsenoside CK on gefitinib-resistant non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in vitro and in vivo was investigated. Ginsenoside CK was confirmed to enhance the anti-proliferation, pro-apoptotic and anti-migration effects of gefitinib in primary and acquired resistant NSCLC. Furthermore, the combined administration of CK and gefitinib effectively promoted the sensitivity of lung cancer xenograft to gefitinib in vivo, and the tumor inhibition rate reached 70.97% (vs. gefitinib monotherapy 32.65%). Subsequently, tubule formation experiment and western blot results showed that co-treatment of ginsenoside CK inhibited the angiogenesis ability of HUVEC cells, and inhibited the expression of HIF-1α, VEGF, FGF and MMP2/9. More interestingly, ginsenoside CK co-treatment enhanced the expression of anti-angiogenic factor PF4, increased pericellular envelope, and promoted the normalization of vascular structure. In conclusion, ginsenoside CK improved the resistance of gefitinib by regulating the balance of angiogenic factors through down-regulating the HIF-1α/VEGF signaling pathway, providing a theoretical basis for improving the clinical efficacy of gefitinib and applying combined strategies to overcome drug resistance.

Metabolic characteristics of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng in rat feces mediated by gut microbiota

Ginsenosides in Panax ginseng are regarded to be functional ingredients for diverse pharmacological effects and orally administrated with very low absorption in the gastrointestinal tract to be metabolized by gut microbiota. However, in vivo metabolic characteristics of ginsenosides mediated by gut microbiota are not well-known. This study aimed to explore the metabolic profiles of ginsenosides in rat feces mediated by gut microbiota. Ginsenosides and metabolites were identified and relatively quantified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS). As a result, eighty-four metabolites were identified in the normal control rat feces, while only thirty intermediates were found with very low yields in the pseudo-germ-free (GF) group. Similarly, the main bioconversion pathways of ginsenosides in vivo were the same deglycosylation reaction mediated by gut microbiota in vitro. The findings demonstrated significant differences in metabolic profiles between the normal control and pseudo-GF rats, which implied gut microbiota played an important role in the metabolism of ginsenosides.

Evaluation of the Efficacy, Safety, and Clinical Outcomes of Ginsenosides as Adjuvant Therapy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review

Background: Ginsenosides (GS), including total GS, Rh2, Rg3 and compound K (CK), have been utilized as adjuvants in transarterial chemoembolization (TACE), surgery, and chemotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) therapy. However, the safety and efficacy of such combination treatments have been contradictory across different studies. This study aims to systematically evaluate the efficacy and safety of GS as adjuvant therapy for HCC. Methods: A literature search of PubMed, CNKI, Wanfang Data, Cochrane Library, Embase, and Web of Science was conducted up to May 2024 for clinical randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on GS-based adjuvant treatments for HCC. Two researchers independently screened the literature, extracted relevant data, and assessed study quality. Meta-analysis was conducted using RevMan 5.4. Results: Nineteen articles involving 1448 patients were included. Meta-analysis showed that GS as an adjuvant therapy for HCC improved disease control rate (risk ratio (RR) = 1.42, 95% CI [1.26, 1.60]), objective response rate (RR = 1.20, 95% CI [1.09, 1.32]), life quality (RR = 1.49, 95% CI [1.23, 1.79]), 1-year overall survival rate (RR = 1.27, 95% CI [1.06, 1.52]), 2-year overall survival rate (RR = 1.43, 95% CI [1.06, 1.95]), ehanced Child-Pugh in A level (RR = 1.59, 95% CI [1.08, 2.34]), Child-Pugh in B level (RR = 1.28, 95% CI [1.08, 1.52]); increased CD3+ (MD = 8.81, 95% CI [3.91, 13.71]), NKC (MD = 8.00, 95% CI [6.76, 9.24]) and CD4+ (MD = 9.38, 95% CI [8.04, 10.72]), and reduced incidence of adverse reactions including nausea and vomiting (RR = 0.66, 95% CI [0.57, 0.77]), anorexia (RR = 0.33, 95% CI [0.21, 0.50]), leukopenia (RR = 0.55, 95% CI [0.46, 0.67]) and myelosuppression (RR = 0.54, 95% CI [0.40, 0.74]); decreased Child-Pugh in C level (RR = 0.43, 95% CI [0.27, 0.68]) and CD4+/CD8+ ratio (MD = 0.50, 95% CI [0.47, 0.57]). Conclusions: In summary, GS combined with Western medical approaches (TACE, surgery, chemotherapy) for the treatment of HCC can improve clinical efficacy, increase overall survival rates, enhance patient life quality, and reduce the occurrence of adverse reactions. However, due to the generally low quality of the included studies, more large-sample, multi-center, high-quality, RCTs are warranted to further consolidate these findings.

Advances in the biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides

Rare ginsenosides are the deglycosylated secondary metabolic derivatives of major ginsenosides, and they are more readily absorbed into the bloodstream and function as active substances. The traditional preparation methods hindered the potential application of these effective components. The continuous elucidation of ginsenoside biosynthesis pathways has rendered the production of rare ginsenosides using synthetic biology techniques effective for their large-scale production. Previously, only the progress in the biosynthesis and biotechnological production of major ginsenosides was highlighted. In this review, we summarized the recent advances in the identification of key enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathways of rare ginsenosides, especially the glycosyltransferases (GTs). Then the construction of microbial chassis for the production of rare ginsenosides, mainly in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was presented. In the future, discovery of more GTs and improving their catalytic efficiencies are essential for the metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides. This review will give more clues and be helpful for the characterization of the biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides. KEY POINTS: • The key enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathways of rare ginsenosides are summarized. • The recent progress in metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides is presented. • The discovery of glycosyltransferases is essential for the microbial production of rare ginsenosides in the future.

Research progress of ginseng in the treatment of gastrointestinal cancers

Cancer has become one of the major causes of human death. Several anticancer drugs are available; howeve their use and efficacy are limited by the toxic side effects and drug resistance caused by their continuous application. Many natural products have antitumor effects with low toxicity and fewer adverse effects. Moreover, they play an important role in enhancing the cytotoxicity of chemotherapeutic agents, reducing toxic side effects, and reversing chemoresistance. Consequently, natural drugs are being applied as potential therapeutic options in the field of antitumor treatment. As natural medicinal plants, some components of ginseng have been shown to have excellent efficacy and a good safety profile for cancer treatment. The pharmacological activities and possible mechanisms of action of ginseng have been identified. Its broad range of pharmacological activities includes antitumor, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-stress, anti-fibrotic, central nervous system modulating, cardioprotective, and immune-enhancing effects. Numerous studies have also shown that throuth multiple pathways, ginseng and its active ingredients exert antitumor effects on gastrointestinal (GI) tract tumors, such as esophageal, gastric, colorectal, liver, and pancreatic cancers. Herein, we introduced the main components of ginseng, including ginsenosides, polysaccharides, and sterols, etc., and reviewed the mechanism of action and research progress of ginseng in the treatment of various GI tumors. Futhermore, the pathways of action of the main components of ginseng are discussed in depth to promote the clinical development and application of ginseng in the field of anti-GI tumors.

Regulating the Expression of HIF-1α or lncRNA: Potential Directions for Cancer Therapy

Previous studies have shown that tumors under a hypoxic environment can induce an important hypoxia-responsive element, hypoxia-induced factor-1α (HIF-1α), which can increase tumor migration, invasion, and metastatic ability by promoting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in tumor cells. Currently, with the deeper knowledge of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), more and more functions of lncRNAs have been discovered. HIF-1α can regulate hypoxia-responsive lncRNAs under hypoxic conditions, and changes in the expression level of lncRNAs can regulate the production of EMT transcription factors and signaling pathway transduction, thus promoting EMT progress. In conclusion, this review summarizes the regulation of the EMT process by HIF-1α and lncRNAs and discusses their relationship with tumorigenesis. Since HIF-1α plays an important role in tumor progression, we also summarize the current drugs that inhibit tumor progression by modulating HIF-1α.

Phenanthroindolizidine Alkaloids Isolated from Tylophora ovata as Potent Inhibitors of Inflammation, Spheroid Growth, and Invasion of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), representing the most aggressive form of breast cancer with currently no targeted therapy available, is characterized by an inflammatory and hypoxic tumor microenvironment. To date, a broad spectrum of anti-tumor activities has been reported for phenanthroindolizidine alkaloids (PAs), however, their mode of action in TNBC remains elusive. Thus, we investigated six naturally occurring PAs extracted from the plant Tylophora ovata: O-methyltylophorinidine (1) and its five derivatives tylophorinidine (2), tylophoridicine E (3), 2-demethoxytylophorine (4), tylophoridicine D (5), and anhydrodehydrotylophorinidine (6). In comparison to natural (1) and for more-in depth studies, we also utilized a sample of synthetic O-methyltylophorinidine (1s). Our results indicate a remarkably effective blockade of nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) within 2 h for compounds (1) and (1s) (IC50 = 17.1 ± 2.0 nM and 3.3 ± 0.2 nM) that is different from its effect on cell viability within 24 h (IC50 = 13.6 ± 0.4 nM and 4.2 ± 1 nM). Furthermore, NFκB inhibition data for the additional five analogues indicate a structure–activity relationship (SAR). Mechanistically, NFκB is significantly blocked through the stabilization of its inhibitor protein kappa B alpha (IκBα) under normoxic as well as hypoxic conditions. To better mimic the TNBC microenvironment in vitro, we established a 3D co-culture by combining the human TNBC cell line MDA-MB-231 with primary murine cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF) and type I collagen. Compound (1) demonstrates superiority against the therapeutic gold standard paclitaxel by diminishing spheroid growth by 40% at 100 nM. The anti-proliferative effect of (1s) is distinct from paclitaxel in that it arrests the cell cycle at the G0/G1 state, thereby mediating a time-dependent delay in cell cycle progression. Furthermore, (1s) inhibited invasion of TNBC monoculture spheroids into a matrigel®-based environment at 10 nM. In conclusion, PAs serve as promising agents with presumably multiple target sites to combat inflammatory and hypoxia-driven cancer, such as TNBC, with a different mode of action than the currently applied chemotherapeutic drugs.

Ginsenoside Rh4 Suppresses Metastasis of Esophageal Cancer and Expression of c-Myc via Targeting the Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway

The metastasis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a leading cause of death worldwide, however, it has a poor prognosis. Ginsenoside Rh4 is a rare saponin that has been shown to have potential antitumor effectiveness in ESCC. However, the utility of Rh4 in ESCC metastasis and its undiscovered mode of action has not yet been explored. In this study, we found that Rh4 could inhibit ESCC metastasis by regulating the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway and the level of c-Myc, which is an important transcription factor in cancer. In in vitro experiments, Rh4 could inhibit the migration and invasion of ESCC cells without affecting cell viability. In in vivo experiments, Rh4 restrained ESCC metastasis to the lymph nodes and lungs via the suppression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). The Wnt agonist HLY78 promoted EMT and migration of ESCC cells, whereas treatment of Rh4 can attenuate the promotion effect of HLY78. The siRNA knocking out c-Myc can also significantly reduce the expression of EMT-related marker proteins. This study illustrates a new concept for further research on the mechanism of Rh4 in ESCC.

Ginsenoside Compound K Enhances Fracture Healing via Promoting Osteogenesis and Angiogenesis

Fractures have an extraordinarily negative impact on an individual’s quality of life and functional status, particularly delayed or non-union fractures. Osteogenesis and angiogenesis are closely related to bone growth and regeneration, and bone modeling and remodeling. Recently Chinese medicine has been extensively studied to promote osteogenic differentiation in MSCs. Studies have found that Ginseng can be used as an alternative for tissue regeneration and engineering. Ginseng is a commonly used herbal medicine in clinical practice, and one of its components, Ginsenoside Compound K (CK), has received much attention. Evidence indicates that CK has health-promoting effects in inflammation, atherosclerosis, diabetics, aging, etc. But relatively little is known about its effect on bone regeneration and the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms. In this study, CK was found to promote osteogenic differentiation of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (rBMSCs) by RT-PCR and Alizarin Red S staining in vitro. Mechanistically, we found CK could promote osteogenesis through activating Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway by immunofluorescence staining and luciferase reporter assay. And we also showed that the tube formation capacity of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) was increased by CK. Furthermore, using the rat open femoral fracture model, we found that CK could improve fracture repair as demonstrated by Micro-CT, biomechanical and histology staining analysis. The formation of H type vessel in the fracture callus was also increased by CK. These findings provide a scientific basis for treating fractures with CK, which may expand its application in clinical practice.

Ginsenoside CK Inhibits TGF-β-Induced Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in A549 Cell via SIRT1

Ginsenoside CK is the main metabolite of protopanaxadiol saponins in intestinal bacteria. Previous studies have shown that ginsenoside CK can affect many aspects of tumor development through a variety of mechanisms. However, few studies have reported the antimetastatic effects of ginsenoside CK in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In this study, we explored the effect of ginsenoside CK on epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) induced by TGF-β in A549 cells and the potential molecular mechanisms. Our data showed that ginsenoside CK effectively prevented TGF-β-induced EMT, as indicated by the upregulation of E-cadherin and downregulation of vimentin. Furthermore, ginsenoside CK inhibited the metastatic ability of A549 cells in the tail vein lung metastasis model of nude mice. Additionally, ginsenoside CK decreased the expression of silent information regulator 2 homolog 1 (SIRT1) in the inhibition of EMT induced by TGF-β. Moreover, the antimetastatic effect of ginsenoside CK was reversed by SIRT1 overexpression. Generally, our results indicated the antimetastatic effect and underlying mechanism of ginsenoside CK on TGF-β-induced EMT in A549 cells, suggesting that ginsenoside CK can be used as an effective antineoplastic agent.