Effect of Season and Factory on Cheese-Making Efficiency in Parmigiano Reggiano Manufacture

The effect of dairy herd and industry-related factors on Parmigiano Reggiano PDO cheese-making traits evaluated by FT-IR spectroscopy

Parmigiano Reggiano protected designation of origin (PDO) cheese inherently exhibits variability due to the characteristics of the production system, contributing to heterogeneity in the composition and properties of milk used in the cheese-making process. This variability leads to variations in cheese yield and nutrient recoveries. The direct measurement of these traits is not feasible in routine practice. Therefore, among indirect analytical techniques, infrared spectroscopy could help to predict these traits from the milk spectra collected directly in the dairy plant. This work aimed to assess the impact of cow breed, farm, dairy factory, and production parameters on cheese-making traits prediction. The impact of this variability has been measured by prediction bias, using a stratified cross-validation. The results confirmed high variability across dairy industries and showed that breed had the highest influence. The use of milk spectra combined with chemometrics was feasible to characterize Parmigiano Reggiano PDO production.

Leveraging milk mid-infrared spectroscopy to authenticate animal welfare, farming practices, and dairy systems of Parmigiano Reggiano cheese

Increasing consumer concerns underscore the importance of verifying the practices and origins of food, especially certified premium products. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of Fourier-transform mid-infrared (FT-MIR) spectroscopy to authenticate animal welfare parameters, farming practices, and dairy systems. Data on farm characteristics were obtained from the Parmigiano Reggiano Consortium in northern Italy. Animal welfare data were collected by trained veterinarians using the assessment protocol developed by the Italian National Reference Center for Animal Welfare (CReNBA), and bulk milk test-day data were obtained from the laboratory of the Breeders Association of the Emilia Romagna Region. A merged final dataset of 12,083 bulk FT-MIR spectra records from 949 farms was created. Using a nonhierarchical clustering approach, the farms were classified into 5 dairy systems: 2 traditional systems comprising farms located in either the Apennines or the Po Plain; 2 modern systems, one that used TMR and one did not; and one traditional dairy system comprising farms rearing local breeds. To evaluate the ability of bulk milk to capture differences in farming systems, we conducted an ANOVA on milk composition. The linear models included the following effects: season, dairy system, farm, and the interaction between dairy system and season. The effect of the dairy system was significant for all milk composition traits. A 10-iteration linear discriminant analysis was used to evaluate the discriminative ability of the spectra in classifying farming practices and dairy systems. The average results of the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve revealed good authentication performance for genetic type (0.98), housing system (0.91), and feeding system (0.89), and medium-low authentication performance for geographical area (0.70); poor results were obtained for the percentage of concentrate in the diet and animal welfare parameters (0.57-0.64). With regard to dairy systems, the best result was obtained when dairy systems were grouped into 2 simplified categories, traditional versus modern (0.89), instead of the 5 categories (0.87). The results of this study show that FT-MIR is a useful tool for authenticating farming practices and dairy systems, but not animal welfare as defined by CReNBA evaluation criteria. Our results show that infrared spectroscopy has the potential to authenticate dairy products and quality label certifications.

Association Between Herd Size and the Chemical Composition and Technological Properties of Milk Intended for Parmigiano Reggiano PDO Cheese

The aim of this research was to compare the chemical composition and the technological characteristics of milk for Parmigiano Reggiano cheese produced in herds with different numbers of cows. The research was carried out on 5760 Italian Friesian herd milk samples collected from a total of 160 farms (one sample per month in each farm for three years). On each milk sample, lactose, fat, protein, casein, titratable acidity, total bacterial count, somatic cells, coliform bacteria, clostridia spores, and rennet coagulation properties were determined. Increasing herd size was positively correlated with milk production and with milk somatic cell and clostridia spores' contents (8133 kg/cow/lactation, 5.280 Log10cells/mL and 1.782 spores/L for herds with less than 30 cows; 9109 kg/cow/lactation, 5.548 Log10cells/mL and 2.138 spores/L for herds with more than 200 cows, respectively). Moreover, herd size was negatively correlated with milk fat content and with total bacterial and coliform bacteria counts (3.73 g/100 g, 4.931 Log10CFU/mL and 3.176 Log10CFU/mL for herds with less than 30 cows; 3.51 g/100 g, 4.770 Log10CFU/mL and 3.121 Log10CFU/mL for herds with more than 200 cows, respectively). Farms with more than 100 cows raised were characterised by higher milk production per cow per lactation, but the milk produced by them was also characterised by lower fat content. Finally, milk produced in the herds with a higher number of cows showed a higher frequency of optimal lactodynamographic types (better rennet-coagulation properties) than milk produced in the other herds.

Application of flow cytometry for rapid bacterial enumeration and cells physiological state detection to predict acidification capacity of natural whey starters

Natural whey starter cultures are undefined microbial communities mainly consisting of thermophilic lactic acid bacteria (LAB). The technological pressure that shapes the natural whey starter community before and during the back-slopping procedure can impact the amount and viability of the different thermophilic LAB. Traditional culture-dependent analytical methods are useful for evaluating natural whey cultures based on plate enumeration with various culture media and are commonly used as self-control procedures in dairy items. These methods have high variability and require days to obtain results. As the dairy industry has been searching for a solution to this problem for a long time, researchers must explore alternative methods for the technological evaluation of natural whey and assessment of the health status of the thermophilic acidifying bacteria community in the cheesemaking process. The flow cytometry approach has been considered an alternative to classical methods in this work sector. This study compared bacterial enumeration by plate counting and flow cytometry on natural whey samples. Flow cytometry results showed positive agreement with a tendency to overestimate, linearity, and correlation with plate counting. Other parameters have also been introduced for evaluating a natural whey starter, measuring the physiological state of the cells. Specifically, cell-wall damage and metabolic activity were also evaluated, allowing us to quantify the number of cells even in sub-optimal physiological conditions.

Distribution of Calcium, Phosphorus and Magnesium in Yak (Bos grunniens) Milk from the Qinghai Plateau in China

This research was aimed to assess the distribution of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium within the casein micelles of yak milk. To this aim, nine bulk yak milk samples (Y-milk), collected in three yak farms located in the Chinese province of Qinghai, were compared to nine bulk cow milk samples used as a reference. A quite similar content of colloidal calcium (0.80 vs. 0.77 mmol/g of casein; p > 0.05), a higher content of magnesium (0.05 vs. 0.04 mmol/g of casein; p ≤ 0.01) and a lower content of colloidal phosphorus (0.48 vs. 0.56 mmol/g of casein; p ≤ 0.01) between yak and cow casein micelles were found. Moreover, the yak casein micelles showed a lower value of prosthetic phosphorus (0.20 vs. 0.26 mmol/g of casein; p ≤ 0.05) compared to the cow micelles. The lower values of colloidal and prosthetic phosphorus in yak casein micelles suggest that the yak casein is less phosphorylated than the cow one.

Fatty acids composition and lipolysis of Parmigiano Reggiano PDO cheese: effect of the milk cooling temperature at the farm

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to study the influence of cooling milk at 9°C at the farm versus keeping it at 20°C on Parmigiano Reggiano cheese lipolysis.

METHODS

A total of six cheesemaking trials (3 in winter and 3 in summer) were performed. In each trial, milk was divided continuously into two identical aliquots, one of which was kept at 9°C (MC9) and the other at 20°C (MC20). For each trial and milk temperature, vat milk (V-milk) and the resulting 21 month ripened cheese were analysed.

RESULTS

Fat and dry matter and fat/casein ratio were lower in MC9 V-milk (p≤0.05) than in MC20. Total bacteria, mesophilic lactic acid and psychrotrophic and lipolytic bacteria showed significant differences (p≤0.05) between the two V-milks. Regarding cheese, fat content resulted lower and crude protein higher (p≤0.05) both in outer (OZ) and in inner zone (IZ) of the MC9 cheese wheels. Concerning total fatty acids, the MC9 OZ had a lower concentration of butyric, capric (p≤0.05) and medium chain fatty acids (p≤0.05), while the MC9 IZ had lower content of butyric (p≤0.05), caproic (p≤0.01) and short chain fatty acids (p≤0.05). The levels of short chain and medium chain free fatty acids (p≤0.05) were lower and that of long chain fatty acids (p≤0.05) was higher in MC9 OZ cheese. The principal component analysis of total and free fatty acids resulted in a clear separation among samples by seasons, whereas slight differences were observed between the two different milk temperatures.

CONCLUSION

Storing milk at 9°C at the herd affects the chemical composition of Parmigiano Reggiano, with repercussion on lipolysis. However, the changes are not very relevant, and since the cheese can present a high variability among the different cheese factories, such changes should be considered within the "normal variations" of Parmigiano Reggiano chemical characteristics.

Peptide profile of Parmigiano Reggiano cheese after simulated gastrointestinal digestion: From quality drivers to functional compounds

Time of ripening has a strong impact on shaping the valuable and recognizable characteristics of long-ripened types of cheese such as Parmigiano Reggiano (PR) due to the interrelationship between microbiota and proteolysis that occurs during ripening. The derived peptide profile is linked to cheese quality and represents the canvas for enzymes upon digestion, which could be responsible for the release of potentially bioactive peptides (BPs). In this study, we aimed at investigating the presence of BP in 72 PR cheese samples of different ripening times, from curd to 24 months of ripening, produced in six different dairies, and following their fate after simulated gastrointestinal digestion. A small number of peptide sequences sharing 100% similarity with known antimicrobial, antioxidant, and ACE-inhibitor sequences were found in PR cheeses, while a higher number of potential BPs were found after their simulated gastrointestinal digestion, in different amounts according to ripening time. Taking advantage of the complex organization of the sampling plan, we were able to follow the fate of peptides considered quality drivers during cheese ripening to their release as functional compounds upon digestion.

Effect of Dairy, Season, and Sampling Position on Physical Properties of Trentingrana Cheese: Application of an LMM-ASCA Model

Trentingrana hard cheese is a geographic specification of the PDO Grana Padano. It is produced according to an internal regulation by many cooperative dairy factories in the Trentino region (northern Italy), using a semi-artisanal process (the only allowed ingredients are milk, salt, and rennet). Within the PSR project TRENTINGRANA, colorimetric and textural measurements have been collected from 317 cheese wheels, which were sampled bi-monthly from all the consortium dairies (n = 15) within the timeframe of two years, to estimate the effect on physical properties related to the season of the year and the dairy factory implant. To estimate the effect of the dairy and the time of the year, considering the internal variability of each cheese wheel, a linear mixed-effect model combined with a simultaneous component analysis (LMM-ASCA) is proposed. Results show that all the factors have a significant effect on the colorimetric and textural properties of the cheese. There are five clusters of dairies producing cheese with similar properties, three different couples of months of the year when the cheese produced is significantly different from all the others, and the effect of the geometry of the cheese wheel is reported as well.

Effects of the Cooling Temperature at the Farm on Milk Maturation and Cheesemaking Process in the Manufacture of Parmigiano Reggiano PDO Cheese

Parmigiano Reggiano is a hard PDO cheese made from bovine raw milk, whose microbiological characteristics have important repercussions on cheese quality. According to the EU official production protocol, milk temperature at the farm must not drop below 18 °C. The present research aimed to study the effect of cooling milk at the farm at 9 °C on the characteristics of milk and on the cheesemaking process and losses during manufacture. Six cheesemaking trials were performed in two different dairies. In each of them, two cheesemakings were made in parallel: one with milk kept at 9 °C (TM9) and the other with milk kept at 20 °C (TM20). TM9 milk, in comparison with TM20, showed after the creaming process a significant reduction not only of total bacterial count but also of psychrotrophic and lipolytic bacteria. At the same time, TM9 milk showed a higher creaming capacity and, consequently, a lower fat content than TM20. TM9 vat milk had worst coagulation properties than TM20, which caused slightly higher loss of fat and curd fines into the whey. Nevertheless, these changes were too small to influence the efficiency of the cheesemaking process; conversely, maintaining milk at the farm at 9 °C led to a reduction of the number of spoilage bacteria.

Effects of Milk Storage Temperature at the Farm on the Characteristics of Parmigiano Reggiano Cheese: Chemical Composition and Proteolysis

Parmigiano Reggiano is a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) cheese whose official production protocol provides that milk cannot be stored at less than 18 °C at the farm. The possibility of refrigerating milk at the farm is highly debated, since it should allow for the limiting of bacterial growth, thus improving the quality of the cheese. The present research aimed to study the influence of storing the milk at 9 °C on the chemical composition and proteolysis during the ripening of Parmigiano Reggiano cheese. The experimentation considered six cheese-making trials, in which both evening and morning milks were subdivided into two parts that were maintained at 9 and 20 °C. After Parmigiano Reggiano cheese-making, one of the twin wheels obtained was analyzed after 21 months of ripening. From each cheese, two different samples were taken, one from the inner zone, and the other from the outer zone. The results of the chemical analyses evidenced that milk storage at 9 °C significantly (p ≤ 0.05) influenced fat, crude protein, soluble nitrogen and peptone nitrogen contents. Nevertheless, the differences observed with respect to the cheese obtained with milk stored under standard condition were very small and should be considered within the "normal variations" of Parmigiano Reggiano chemical characteristics.

New Insights in Cheese Yield Capacity of the Milk of Italian Brown and Italian Friesian Cattle in the Production of High-Moisture Mozzarella

The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of κ-casein B content in milk on the yield of high-moisture mozzarella cheese. The study was carried out by monitoring the production of eight mozzarella cheese batches at four cheese making factories. At each factory, two cheese making trials were performed in parallel: one using bulk milk from Italian Brown cattle and the other using bulk milk from Italian Friesian cattle. The average κ-casein B content was 0.04 g per 100 g in the Italian Friesian cows’ milk, whereas it was four time higher in the Italian Brown cows’ milk, reaching values of 0.16 g per 100 g. Both the κ-casein content and κ-casein B to casein ratio were positively correlated with actual cheese yield. Both parameters showed correlation coefficient values over 0.9, higher than for any other protein fraction. The influence of the level of κ-casein on the increase of the yield is probably due to smaller and more homogeneous micelles, with more efficient rennet coagulation. Consequently, milk with higher κ-casein B content produces a more elastic curd that withstands better the technological treatments and limits losses during curd mincing and stretching. In conclusion, the Italian Brown cows’ milk used, characterized by higher κ-casein content than the Italian Friesian’s one, allowed a yield increase of about 2.65%, which is a very relevant result for both farms and cheese making factories.

Quantification of Cheese Yield Reduction in Manufacturing Parmigiano Reggiano from Milk with Non-Compliant Somatic Cells Count

The mammary gland inflammation process is responsible for an increased number of somatic cells in milk, and transfers into the milk of some blood components; this causes alterations in the chemical composition and physico-chemical properties of milk. For this reason, somatic cell count (SCC) is one of the most important parameters of milk quality; therefore, European Union (EU) Regulation no 853/2004 has stated that it must not exceed the limit value of 400,000 cells/mL. The research aimed to compare chemical composition, cheese yield, and cheesemaking losses of two groups of vat milks used for Parmigiano Reggiano production, characterized by different SCC levels. During two years, ten cheesemaking trials were performed in ten different cheese factories. In each trial, two cheesemaking processes were conducted in parallel: one with low SCC milk (below 400,000 cells/mL; Low Cell Count (LCC)) and the other with high SCC milk (400,000-1,000,000 cells/mL; High Cell Count (HCC)). For each trial, vat milk and cooked whey were analyzed; after 24 months of ripening, cheeses were weighed to calculate cheese yield. The HCC group had lower casein content (2.43 vs. 2.57 g/100 g; p ≤ 0.05) and number (77.03% vs. 77.80%; p ≤ 0.05), lower phosphorus (88.37 vs. 92.46 mg/100g; p ≤ 0.05) and titratable acidity (3.16 vs. 3.34 °SH/50 mL; p ≤ 0.05) compared to LCC. However, chloride (111.88 vs. 104.12 mg/100 g; p ≤ 0.05) and pH (6.77 vs. 6.71; p ≤ 0.05) were higher. Fat losses during cheesemaking were higher (20.16 vs. 16.13%). After 24 months of ripening, cheese yield was 8.79% lower for HCC milk than LCC (6.74 vs. 7.39 kg/100 kg; p ≤ 0.05).