Differential Effects of Tai Chi Chuan (Motor-Cognitive Training) and Walking on Brain Networks: A Resting-State fMRI Study in Chinese Women Aged 60

The Science of Tai Chi and Qigong and Whole Person Health Part I: Rationale and State of the Science

The emerging paradigm of whole person health shares many core principles with traditional complementary and integrative health frameworks, including Tai Chi and qigong (TCQ). In the Fall of 2023, the Harvard Medical School Osher Center for Integrative Health hosted the inaugural international conference on The Science of Tai Chi for Whole Person Health: Advancing the Integration of Mind-Body Practices into Contemporary Health Care held at Harvard Medical School. A two-part white paper was written to summarize key conference topics, findings, and issues. Part I presented here summarizes the rationale for the conference and synthesizes the state of evidence for TCQ as rehabilitative and preventive tools for a range of clinical conditions, including falls and balance, cognition, mental health, sleep, cardiorespiratory health, musculoskeletal health, cancer, as well as translational evidence related to the neurophysiology, brain and immune function, and biomarkers of inflammation. The state of science of TCQ, viewed through the lens of traditional East Asian health constructs, is also discussed. Part II of this white paper outlines evidence gaps and opportunities and discusses strategies to address challenges in TCQ research, dissemination, and implementation.

The influence of traditional Chinese exercise on brain function compared with other sports: A meta-analysis on functional neuroimaging studies

Traditional Chinese Exercise (TCE) has been shown to improve quality of life, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a highly used method for investigating its mechanism. However, there is currently a lack of systematic reviews and meta-analyses focusing on TCE-related brain changes. This study aims to fill this gap by conducting a meta-analysis on brain changes of TCE with fMRI technology. We searched relevant studies published until February 2024. Independent researchers conducted literature screening, quality assessment, and clinical and neuroimaging data extraction. Focis were filtered from eligible studies, and meta-analysis was performed using seed-based d mapping. Twenty-three studies involving 1182 participants were included in this study. The result found that longitudinal TCE increased brain activity in the left anterior cingulate gyri, right fusiform gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, left middle occipital gyrus and left frontal superior compared with other exercises or healthcare. Subgroup analysis showed that the brain activity in the right superior frontal gyrus dorsolateral; right cortico-spinal projections; corpus callosum; right inferior network; right gyrus rectus; left middle occipital gyrus were decreased after TCE compared to other exercise among healthy participants. The right median cingulate gyri was increased after Baduanjin (one of the TCE) compared to other exercise; the left precentral gyrus activity was increased after Tai chi chuan (TCC) practice compared to other exercise. The brain activity in the right insula, right supplementary motor area, and left anterior thalamic were significantly increased after long-time TCC exercise. TCE effectively improved the cognitive level of the subjects. Among them, the MoCA score increased, but Memory Quotient was not improved. Research results indicate that TCE have specific neuromodulatory effects, and different TCE have different neuromodulatory patterns.

Differences in brain connectivity between older adults practicing Tai Chi and Water Aerobics: a case-control study

Background

This study aimed to investigate the neural mechanisms that differentiate mind-body practices from aerobic physical activities and elucidate their effects on cognition and healthy aging. We examined functional brain connectivity in older adults (age > 60) without pre-existing uncontrolled chronic diseases, comparing Tai Chi with Water Aerobics practitioners.

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional, case-control fMRI study involving two strictly matched groups (n = 32) based on gender, age, education, and years of practice. Seed-to-voxel analysis was performed using the Salience, and Frontoparietal Networks as seed regions in Stroop Word-Color and N-Back tasks and Resting State.

Results

During Resting State condition and using Salience network as a seed, Tai Chi group exhibited a stronger correlation between Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Insular Cortex areas (regions related to interoceptive awareness, cognitive control and motor organization of subjective aspects of experience). In N-Back task and using Salience network as seed, Tai Chi group showed increased correlation between Left Supramarginal Gyrus and various cerebellar regions (related to memory, attention, cognitive processing, sensorimotor control and cognitive flexibility). In Stroop task, using Salience network as seed, Tai Chi group showed enhanced correlation between Left Rostral Prefrontal Cortex and Right Occipital Pole, and Right Lateral Occipital Cortex (areas associated with sustained attention, prospective memory, mediate attention between external stimuli and internal intention). Additionally, in Stroop task, using Frontoparietal network as seed, Water Aerobics group exhibited a stronger correlation between Left Posterior Parietal Lobe (specialized in word meaning, representing motor actions, motor planning directed to objects, and general perception) and different cerebellar regions (linked to object mirroring).

Conclusion

Our study provides evidence of differences in functional connectivity between older adults who have received training in a mind-body practice (Tai Chi) or in an aerobic physical activity (Water Aerobics) when performing attentional and working memory tasks, as well as during resting state.

Alexa, let's train now! - A systematic review and classification approach to digital and home-based physical training interventions aiming to support healthy cognitive aging

BACKGROUND

There is mounting evidence that regular physical activity is an important prerequisite for healthy cognitive aging. Consequently, the finding that almost one-third of the adult population does not reach the recommended level of regular physical activity calls for further public health actions. In this context, digital and home-based physical training interventions might be a promising alternative to center-based intervention programs. Thus, this systematic review aimed to summarize the current state of the literature on the effects of digital and home-based physical training interventions on adult cognitive performance.

METHODS

In this pre-registered systematic review (PROSPERO; ID: CRD42022320031), 5 electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, PsycInfo, SPORTDiscus, and Cochrane Library) were searched by 2 independent researchers (FH and PT) to identify eligible studies investigating the effects of digital and home-based physical training interventions on cognitive performance in adults. The systematic literature search yielded 8258 records (extra 17 records from other sources), of which 27 controlled trials were considered relevant. Two reviewers (FH and PT) independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias using a modified version of the Tool for the assEssment of Study qualiTy and reporting in EXercise (TESTEX scale).

RESULTS

Of the 27 reviewed studies, 15 reported positive effects on cognitive and motor-cognitive outcomes (i.e., performance improvements in measures of executive functions, working memory, and choice stepping reaction test), and a considerable heterogeneity concerning study-related, population-related, and intervention-related characteristics was noticed. A more detailed analysis suggests that, in particular, interventions using online classes and technology-based exercise devices (i.e., step-based exergames) can improve cognitive performance in healthy older adults. Approximately one-half of the reviewed studies were rated as having a high risk of bias with respect to completion adherence (≤85%) and monitoring of the level of regular physical activity in the control group.

CONCLUSION

The current state of evidence concerning the effectiveness of digital and home-based physical training interventions is mixed overall, though there is limited evidence that specific types of digital and home-based physical training interventions (e.g., online classes and step-based exergames) can be an effective strategy for improving cognitive performance in older adults. However, due to the limited number of available studies, future high-quality studies are needed to buttress this assumption empirically and to allow for more solid and nuanced conclusions.

Cognitive-motor interventions based on virtual reality and instrumental activities of daily living (iADL): an overview

Non-invasive, non-pharmacological interventions utilizing virtual reality (VR) represent a promising approach to enhancing cognitive function in patients with degenerative cognitive disorders. Traditional "pen and paper" therapies often lack the practical engagement in everyday activities that older individuals encounter in their environment. These activities pose both cognitive and motor challenges, underscoring the necessity of understanding the outcomes of such combined interventions. This review aimed to assess the advantages of VR applications that integrate cognitive-motor tasks, simulating instrumental activities of daily living (iADLs). We systematically searched five databases-Scopus, Web of Science, Springer Link, IEEE Xplore, and PubMed, from their inception until January 31, 2023. Our review revealed that motor movements, coupled with VR-based cognitive-motor interventions, activate specific brain areas and foster improvements in general cognition, executive function, attention, and memory. VR applications that meld cognitive-motor tasks and simulate iADLs can offer significant benefits to older adults. Enhanced cognitive and motor performance can promote increased independence in daily activities, thereby contributing to improved quality of life.

The effect of Bafa Wubu of Tai Chi on college students' anxiety and depression: A randomized, controlled pilot study

Objective: This pilot study aimed to explore the mechanism of the effects of Bafa Wubu of Tai Chi (BWTC) on anxiety and depression in college students using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (RS-fMRI). Methods: Eighteen college students (5 males and 13 females) with anxiety and depression met the study criteria and were randomly divided into an experimental group (aged 24.20 ± 4.07 years) and a control group (aged 22.50 ± 5.95). The experimental group received an eight-week BWTC intervention five times/week for 60 min/session. The control group maintained normal daily life without any exercise intervention. These students were assessed using RS-fMRI scans, the self-rating anxiety scale (SAS), and the self-rating depression scale (SDS). Spearman correlation analysis was used, and statistical significance was defined as a two-sided p-value of <0.05. Results: After the intervention, the SAS and SDS scores of the BWTC group significantly reduced (p = 0.002; p = 0.001). Compared with the control group, the fALFF values of the right middle frontal gyrus, orbital part (Frontal_Mid_Orb_R) (p = 0.043), right inferior occipital gyrus (Occipital_Inf_R) (p = 0.003), and right middle temporal gyrus of the temporal pole (Temporal_Pole_Mid_R) (p = 0.003) in the BWTC group increased significantly; the fALFF values of the left middle frontal gyrus (Frontal_Mid_L) (p = 0.001) and right supplementary motor area (Supp_Motor_Area_R) (p = 0.010) in BWTC group decreased significantly. The fALFF values of Frontal_Mid_Orb_R were significantly positively correlated with the SDS score (r = 0.852, p = 0.015) and the fALFF values of Frontal_Mid_L were significantly negatively correlated with the SAS score (r = -0.797, p = 0.032). Conclusion: In this pilot study with college students, BWTC alleviated anxiety and depression, potentially through modulating activity in the Frontal_Mid_L and Frontal_Mid_Orb_R, respectively.

Chronic effects of different exercise types on brain activity in healthy older adults and those with Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review

Objective: This study aimed to compare the regulation of brain activity by different kinds of long-term exercises (Tai Chi, treadmill training, and dancing) in healthy older adults and those with PD.

Methods: From January 2000 to October 2021, the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched. All articles were screened throughout the inclusion and exclusion criteria, which was followed by PICOS criteria. Finally, all articles were systematically reviewed with analyses.

Results: 29 studies were identified for this review, 24 of which were finally included in a group of healthy older adults, and five of which in a group of people with PD. All studies showed that significant changes were showed on people with PD and healthy older adults’ brain activity after three terms of the exercises we chose. An inverse change trend on the functional connectivity in people with PD was observed after treadmill training, whereas increased brain activity, cognitive function, memory, and emotion were noticed in healthy older adults.

Conclusion: Our findings suggest that different patterns of brain activity were also observed between healthy older adults and people with PD after treadmill training. However, more robust evidence and comprehensive studies are needed to determine if there is a difference between healthy older adults and people with PD.

Effects of exercise types on white matter microstructure in late midlife adults: Preliminary results from a diffusion tensor imaging study

Higher aerobic fitness during late midlife is associated with higher white matter (WM) microstructure. Compared with individuals engaged in irregular exercise, those who engage in regular aerobic exercise show higher fractional anisotropy (FA), a diffusion tenor imaging (DTI) measure that provides an index of WM microstructural integrity. However, whether other types of exercise, such as Tai Chi, can also facilitate WM changes in adults during late midlife remains unknown. The present study compares two types of exercise, Tai Chi and walking, with a sedentary control group, in order to examine the effects of exercise on WM microstructure and determine the regional specificity of WM differences. Thirty-six healthy adults between the ages of 55 and 65 years participated in the study. Based on the participants' exercise habits, they were allocated into three groups: Tai Chi, walking, or sedentary control. All participants were required to complete physical fitness measurements and completed magnetic reasoning imaging (MRI) scans. Our results revealed that the Tai Chi group exhibited a higher FA value in the left cerebral peduncle, compared to the sedentary control group. We also observed that both the Tai Chi and walking groups exhibited higher FA values in the right uncinate fasciculus and the left external capsule, in comparison to the sedentary control group. Increased FA values in these regions was positively correlated with higher levels of physical fitness measurements (i.e., peak oxygen uptake [VO2peak], muscular endurance/number of push-up, agility, power). These findings collectively suggest that regular exercise is associated with improved WM microstructural integrity, regardless of the exercise type, which could guide the development and application of future prevention and intervention strategies designed to address age-related cognitive impairments during late midlife.

Tai Chi practice enables prefrontal cortex bilateral activation and gait performance prioritization during dual-task negotiating obstacle in older adults

BACKGROUND

With aging, the cognitive function of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) declined, postural control weakened, and fall risk increased. As a mind-body exercise, regular Tai Chi practice could improve postural control and effectively prevent falls; however, underlying brain mechanisms remained unclear, which were shed light on by analyzing the effect of Tai Chi on the PFC in older adults by means of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).

METHODS

36 healthy older adults without Tai Chi experience were divided randomly into Tai Chi group and Control group. The experiment was conducted four times per week for 16 weeks; 27 participants remained and completed the experiment. Negotiating obstacle task (NOT) and negotiating obstacle with cognitive task (NOCT) were performed pre- and post-intervention, and Brodmann area 10 (BA10) was detected using fNIRS for hemodynamic response. A three-dimensional motion capture system measured walking speed.

RESULTS

After intervention in the Tai Chi group under NOCT, the HbO2 concentration change value (ΔHbO2) in BA10 was significantly greater (right BA10: p = 0.002, left BA10: p = 0.001), walking speed was significantly faster (p = 0.040), and dual-task cost was significantly lower than pre-intervention (p = 0.047). ΔHbO2 in BA10 under NOCT was negatively correlated with dual-task cost (right BA10: r = -0.443, p = 0.021, left BA10: r = -0.448, p = 0.019). There were strong negative correlations between ΔHbO2 and ΔHbR under NOCT either pre-intervention (left PFC r = -0.841, p < 0.001; right PFC r = -0.795, p < 0.001) or post-intervention (left PFC r = -0.842, p < 0.001; right PFC r = -0.744, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Tai Chi practice might increase the cognitive resources in older adults through the PFC bilateral activation to prioritize gait performance during negotiating obstacles under a dual-task condition.

Brain Functional Connectivity in Middle-Aged Hong Chuan Tai Chi Players in Resting State

Tai Chi is an effective strategy for slowing cognitive decline, although the underlying mechanism remains unclear. We designed a cross-sectional study to examine brain functional connectivity in middle-aged Hong Chuan Tai Chi practitioners. Eighteen middle-aged Hong Chuan Tai Chi practitioners and 22 age-matched Tai Chi-naïve controls completed functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) tests to evaluate oxyhemoglobin changes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), motor cortex (MC), and occipital cortex (OC) in five frequency intervals (I, 0.6-2 Hz; II, 0.145-0.6 Hz; III, 0.052-0.145 Hz; IV, 0.021-0.052 Hz; V, 0.0095-0.021 Hz). Wavelet phase coherence was used to analyze the match between the instantaneous phases of the two signals to accurately measure brain functional connectivity. Global cognition was measured using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment scale. Compared with the control group, Hong Chuan Tai Chi practitioners had better global cognition (p < 0.01) and showed higher functional connectivity of the PFC, MC, and OC in intervals I, III, VI, and V in the resting state within the same brain hemispheres or between the left and right hemispheres. Our findings revealed that middle-aged Hong Chuan Tai Chi practitioners had higher functional connectivity of the PFC, MC, and OC across both brain hemispheres in cardiac activity, myogenic activity, sympathetic nervous system, and endothelial cell metabolic activities which may contribute to higher global cognition.

Altered Effective Connectivity of Resting-State Networks by Tai Chi Chuan in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Patients: A Multivariate Granger Causality Study

Numerous evidence has shown that patients with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) have changes in resting brain functional connectivity, but there is no study on the brain network effect of Tai Chi Chuan intervention in CFS. To explore the influence of Tai Chi Chuan exercise on the causal relationship between brain functional networks in patients with CFS, 21 patients with CFS and 19 healthy controls were recruited for resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) scanning and 36-item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36) scale assessment before and after 1month-long training in Tai Chi Chuan. We extracted the resting brain networks using the independent component analysis (ICA) method, analyzed the changes of FC in these networks, conducted Granger causality analysis (GCA) on it, and analyzed the correlation between the difference causality value and the SF-36 scale. Compared to the healthy control group, the SF-36 scale scores of patients with CFS were lower at baseline. Meanwhile, the causal relationship between sensorimotor network (SMN) and default mode network (DMN) was weakened. The above abnormalities could be improved by Tai Chi Chuan training for 1 month. In addition, the correlation analyses showed that the causal relationship between SMN and DMN was positively correlated with the scores of Role Physical (RP) and Bodily Pain (BP) in CFS patients, and the change of causal relationship between SMN and DMN before and after training was positively correlated with the change of BP score. The findings suggest that Tai Chi Chuan is helpful to improve the quality of life for patients with CFS. The change of Granger causality between SMN and DMN may be a readout parameter of CFS. Tai Chi Chuan may promote the functional plasticity of brain networks in patients with CFS by regulating the information transmission between them.

Feasibility and Effects of Virtual Reality Motor-Cognitive Training in Community-Dwelling Older People With Cognitive Frailty: Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Cognitive frailty refers to the coexistence of physical frailty and cognitive impairment, and is associated with many adverse health outcomes. Although cognitive frailty is prevalent in older people, motor-cognitive training is effective at enhancing cognitive and physical function. We proposed a virtual reality (VR) simultaneous motor-cognitive training program, which allowed older people to perform daily activities in a virtual space mimicking real environments.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to (1) explore the feasibility of offering VR simultaneous motor-cognitive training to older people with cognitive frailty and (2) compare its effects with an existing motor-cognitive training program in the community on the cognitive function and physical function of older people with cognitive frailty.

METHODS

A two-arm (1:1), assessor-blinded, parallel design, randomized controlled trial was employed. The eligibility criteria for participants were: (1) aged ≥60 years, (2) community dwelling, and (3) with cognitive frailty. Those in the intervention group received cognitive training (ie, cognitive games) and motor training (ie, cycling on an ergometer) simultaneously on a VR platform, mimicking the daily living activities of older people. Those in the control group received cognitive training (ie, cognitive games) on tablet computers and motor training (ie, cycling on the ergometer) sequentially on a non-VR platform. Both groups received a 30-minute session twice a week for 8 weeks. Feasibility was measured by adherence, adverse outcomes, and successful learning. The outcomes were cognitive function, physical frailty level, and walking speed.

RESULTS

Seventeen participants were recruited and randomized to either the control group (n=8) or intervention group (n=9). At baseline, the median age was 74.0 years (IQR 9.5) and the median Montreal Cognitive Assessment score was 20.0 (IQR 4.0). No significant between-group differences were found in baseline characteristics except in the number of chronic illnesses (P=.04). At postintervention, the intervention group (Z=-2.67, P=.01) showed a significantly larger improvement in cognitive function than the control group (Z=-1.19, P=.24). The reduction in physical frailty in the intervention group (Z=-1.73, P=.08) was similar to that in the control group (Z=-1.89, P=.06). Improvement in walking speed based on the Timed Up-and-Go test was moderate in the intervention group (Z=-0.16, P=.11) and greater in the control group (Z=-2.52, P=.01). The recruitment rate was acceptable (17/33, 52%). Both groups had a 100% attendance rate. The intervention group had a higher completion rate than the control group. Training was terminated for one participant (1/9, 11%) due to minimal VR sickness (Virtual Reality Sickness Questionnaire score=18.3/100). Two participants (2/8, 25%) in the control group withdrew due to moderate leg pain. No injuries were observed in either group.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides preliminary evidence that the VR simultaneous motor-cognitive training is effective at enhancing the cognitive function of older people with cognitive frailty. The effect size on frailty was close to reaching a level of significance and was similar to that observed in the control group. VR training is feasible and safe for older people with cognitive frailty.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04467216; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04467216.

Effects of Mind-Body Exercise on Brain Structure and Function: A Systematic Review on MRI Studies

Mind–body exercise has been proposed to confer both physical and mental health benefits. However, there is no clear consensus on the neural mechanisms underlying the improvements in health. Herein, we conducted a systematic review to reveal which brain region or network is regulated by mind–body exercise. PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure databases were systematically searched to identify cross-sectional and intervention studies using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to explore the effect of mind–body exercise on brain structure and function, from their inception to June 2020. The risk of bias for cross-sectional studies was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist, whereas that of interventional studies was analyzed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. A total of 15 studies met the inclusion criteria. Our analysis revealed that mind–body exercise modulated brain structure, brain neural activity, and functional connectivity, mainly in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus/medial temporal lobe, lateral temporal lobe, insula, and the cingulate cortex, as well as the cognitive control and default mode networks, which might underlie the beneficial effects of such exercises on health. However, due to the heterogeneity of included studies, more randomized controlled trials with rigorous designs, similar measured outcomes, and whole-brain analyses are warranted.

Cognitive Benefits of Activity Engagement among 12,093 Adults Aged over 65 Years

OBJECTIVE

The present study includes two aims: (1) to understand patterns of activity engagement among older Chinese adults; (2) to further investigate associations between activity engagement and cognitive abilities in this population.

METHODS

Latent class analysis was applied to answer the aforementioned research questions across different age ranges while controlling for confounding variables (age, health, socioeconomic status (SES), and living alone). Specifically, five latent classes (non-active, working-active, comprehensive-active, physical-active, and less-active) were identified. Furthermore, associations between the classes of activity engagement and cognition were examined separately in three age groups: less than 80 years (young-old group), 80-99.5 years (old-old group) and more than 100 years (oldest-old group) of age.

RESULTS

Compared with Non-active older individuals, the other classes with a higher probability of engagement in various activities generally showed higher cognitive abilities (including general cognition, orientation, calculation, recall, and language), but not all patterns of active engagement in daily life were positively associated with better cognitive status across different age ranges. In particular, differences in the individuals' cognitive abilities across the four active latent classes were especially obvious in the old-old group as follows: the Comprehensive-active class had higher general cognitive and recall abilities than the other three active classes and higher calculation and language abilities than the Working-active class. In addition, significant sex differences were observed in activity patterns, cognition, and their associations in the young-old and old-old groups. Culture-specific programs should be customized to subgroups of different ages and genders by providing different training or activity modules based on their related dimensions of cognitive decline.

Regular Tai Chi Practice Is Associated With Improved Memory as Well as Structural and Functional Alterations of the Hippocampus in the Elderly

OBJECTIVE

The current study aimed at comparing the effects of Tai Chi (a motor-cognitive exercise) with walking (an exercise without cognitive demands) on cognitive performance, brain structure, and brain function in the elderly.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 42 healthy elderly women within two groups: Tai Chi (n = 20; mean age = 62.90 ± 2.38 years) and brisk walking exercise (n = 22; mean age = 63.27 ± 3.58 years). All the participants underwent a cognitive assessment via the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and brain structural and resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI) assessments.

RESULTS

Episodic memory in the Tai Chi group was superior to that of the walking group. Higher gray matter density in the inferior and medial temporal regions (including the hippocampus) and higher ReHo in temporal regions (specifically the fusiform gyrus and hippocampus) were found in the Tai Chi group. Significant partial correlations were found between the gray matter density of the left hippocampus and episodic memory in the whole sample. Significant partial correlations were observed between the ReHo in left hippocampus, left parahippocampal, left fusiform, and delayed memory task, which was observed among all subjects.

CONCLUSION

The present study suggests that long-term Tai Chi practice may improve memory performance via remodeling the structure and function of the hippocampus.

Altered Brain Functional Connectivity Density in Fast-Ball Sports Athletes With Early Stage of Motor Training

The human brain shows neuroplastic adaptations caused by motor skill training. Of note, there is little known about the plastic architecture of the whole-brain network in resting state. The purpose of the present study was to detect how motor training affected the density distribution of whole-brain resting-state functional connectivity (FC). Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data was assessed based on a comparison of fast-ball student athletes (SA) and non-athlete healthy controls (NC). The voxel-wise data-driven graph theory approach, global functional connectivity density (gFCD) mapping, was applied. Results showed that the SA group exhibited significantly decreased gFCD in brain regions centered at the left triangular part of the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), extending to the opercular part of the left IFG and middle frontal gyrus compared to the NC group. In addition, findings suggested the idea of an increased neural efficiency of athletes’ brain regions associated with attentional–motor modulation and executive control. Furthermore, behavioral results showed that in the SA group, faster executive control reaction time relates to smaller gFCD values in the left IFG. These findings suggested that the motor training would decrease the numbers of FC in IFG to accelerate the executive control with high attentional demands and enable SA to rapidly focus the attention to detect the intriguing target.

Lactate and BDNF: Key Mediators of Exercise Induced Neuroplasticity?

Accumulating evidence from animal and human studies supports the notion that physical exercise can enhance neuroplasticity and thus reduce the risk of several neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., dementia). However, the underlying neurobiological mechanisms of exercise induced neuroplasticity are still largely unknown. One potential mediator of exercise effects is the neurotrophin BDNF, which enhances neuroplasticity via different pathways (e.g., synaptogenesis, neurogenesis, long-term potentiation). Current research has shown that (i) increased peripheral lactate levels (following high intensity exercise) are associated with increased peripheral BDNF levels, (ii) lactate infusion at rest can increase peripheral and central BDNF levels and (iii) lactate plays a very complex role in the brain’s metabolism. In this review, we summarize the role and relationship of lactate and BDNF in exercise induced neuroplasticity.