Boda Bodas and Road Traffic Injuries in Uganda: An Overview of Traffic Safety Trends from 2009 to 2017

The catastrophic cost of motorcycle road traffic injuries: Experience from a major reference centre in a lower-middle income country

BACKGROUND

Motorcycle crashes are an increasing public health problem in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). An accurate estimation of the economic burden of these crashes could be complex owing to a prevalent system of out-of-pocket (OOP) payment for health care services in these countries. Our study aims to objectively evaluate the cost implication of motorcycle Road Traffic Injuries (RTIs) among road crash victims managed at a major trauma reference hospital in Nigeria. Two economic evaluation methods were used to accurately reflect the cost-of-care (C-o-C) of each victim as well as for cross-validation.

METHOD

This is a prospective cohort study conducted between August 2020 and May 2021. All patients involved in motorcycle road traffic crashes presenting to the Emergency Department of the University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria, were included in the study. For each patient, all medical expenses from the time of injury (T0) to 30 days after injury (T30) or Time to death (TD) - whichever occurred first, were valued in costs, and added (Activity-based costing or ABC), while also estimating overall cost-of-care (C-o-C) at T30 or TD, using the willingness-to-pay (WTP) method. Following the WHO definition, catastrophic expenditure was defined as expenditure > 25% of the patient's estimated annual household income.

RESULTS

Of the 150 consecutively managed motorcycle crashes victims during the study period, 112 had complete data. The median monthly household income for the cohort was $121 with 75% of them earning less than $180. The median cost-of-care (C-o-C), by ABC, was $242 ($143 - 828). For individual care items, expenditure on surgical intervention(s) was the highest followed by prosthesis and implant procurement, and radiological investigations. On the other hand, the estimated medical cost was $2356 (IQR $938 - 6475) by WTP. Only 14% had health insurance coverage. The overall expenditure was catastrophic for 46% of the patients. Monthly household income of < $180 (AOR=9.2; 95% CI=2.6-32.8; p < 0.001), absence of health insurance coverage (AOR=10.7; 95% CI=1.1-101.6; p = 0.040), and prolonged hospital stay above 14 days (AOR=25.1; 95% CI=5.5 -115.1; p = 0.001) were predictors of catastrophic expenditure. There was a weak positive correlation between actual cost-of-care using the ABC method and WTP (r = 0.247; p = 0.102).

CONCLUSION

The aggregate cost of motorcycle RTIs is catastrophic for nearly half of the victims attending the University College Hospital, Ibadan. The willingness-to-pay method, though less tedious is often less reliable in these settings owing to a prevalent OOP payment system. This study identified the need to implement effective financial protection mechanisms against the high OOP expenditure faced by motorcycle crash victims in LMICs.

A Rapid Assessment of Road Crashes in Uganda: Notes from the Field

Background

Road crashes continue to persist on Ugandan roads despite the government’s commendable efforts over many years. This study sought to explore the persistent causes of road crashes, suggest recommendations and evaluate the costs incurred by the government for treating accident victims.

Methods

A rapid cross-sectional study involving both quantitative and qualitative study approaches was performed. Desk reviews and six key informant interviews were conducted with traffic police officers and hospital administrators. Traffic road accident data were abstracted from the Uganda Police Force database for the period of January 2021 to February 2022, to ascertain the magnitude of the problem and its causes.

Results

The causes of road accidents are mainly caused by to human error, weather and the poor state of some roads. The government spends reasonable amounts of money in treating accident victims, at USD 245–3590, yet the funds could instead be used to promote socio-economic development in communities.

Conclusion

Road crashes continue to occur in Uganda, mainly because of human error. We recommend amelioration of the identified causes of road traffic crashes to save lives and conserve limited public resources.

Analysis of road traffic injuries and casualties in China: a ten-year nationwide longitudinal study

Background

Road traffic injuries (RTIs) are a serious global problem, and a huge challenge for both economic development and public health.

Methods

This longitudinal study was based on the national data from Chinese authorities. Descriptive analysis was utilized to analyze the prevalence and trend of RTIs among different types, groups and regions. In addition, ridge regression or/and curve regression were also used to explore the relationship between those possible influencing factors and RTIs.

Results

From 2010 to 2019, the death toll from motor vehicle accidents (MVAs) decreased firstly and then increased, while the death toll from non-MVAs continued to rise since 2012, and the death toll from pedestrian and occupant accidents fluctuated only a little. The mortality rate of MVA was relatively stable from 2010 to 2012, and declined from 2013. The mortality rate of motor vehicle accidents was higher in rural than urban, the same to male compared with female. The results of ridge regression showed that gross domestic product (GDP)-per-capita, total population, number of health personnel and car ownership were positively correlated with the death toll of non-MVAs (P < 0.05). Additionally, the results of curve regression suggested that the quadratic or cubic relationship between each factor and the number of MVAs was well fitted, while only partially fitted in fatalities.

Conclusions

In recent years, RTIs in China show different trends, and the problem of non-motor vehicle traffic injuries has been neglected which should be paid more attention. Moreover, according to the new trends and traffic conditions in RTIs revealed in this study, it is necessary to formulate targeted intervention measures establish a multi-faceted comprehensive safety system to reduce the disease burden of RTIs as well as the total injuries.

Factors associated with motorcycle-related road traffic crashes in Africa, a Scoping review from 2016 to 2022

Background

The toll associated with road traffic crashes (RTC) is high, and the burden of injury is disproportionately borne by pedestrians and motor riders, particularly in developing countries. This study synthesized the factors associated with motorcycle-related RTC in Africa.

Methods

The PICO framework and the PRISMA guidelines for conducting reviews were incorporated in searching, screening, and reporting the findings. Advanced search in five electronic databases (Google Scholar, PubMed Central, Scopus, CINAHL, and Embase) yielded 2552 titles and 22 from manual search, filtered for 2016 to 2022 (to generate 1699) and then further for primary studies (854). Through the title, abstract and full-text screening, 22 were appropriate for this review. Data extraction was done by the two researchers independently, and the results were compared. Convergent synthesis was adopted to integrate results, transformed into a narrative, and analyzed using thematic synthesis.

Results

The four main themes identified were the rider-related, non-rider-related factors, prevalence and severity of injuries from RTC, and the measures to reduce RTC. The behavioral factors associated with RTC were alcohol use, smoking, use of illicit drugs, tiredness of rider, poor knowledge on traffic regulations, more than one pillow rider, lack of rider license, non-observance of traffic regulations, and non-use of personal protective equipment. Road traffic crashes were common among younger age and male gender. Other factors identified included poor road network, unplanned stoppage by police, unlawful vehicular packing, increased urbanization, and slippery floors.

Conclusion

There is the need to institute multi-sectoral measures that target riders’ behavior change. Coordinated efforts should target governments, enforcement authorities, and regulatory bodies to enforce enactment that ensures safe use of roads.

Adverse events in the treatment of motorcycle-related isolated limb injuries at a regional hospital in Uganda: a prospective clinical analysis

PURPOSE

Although motorcycle accidents are a leading cause of limb injury in Uganda, little is known about injury care quality at regional hospitals. This study measured the incidence of clinical adverse events (CAEs) and identified associated treatment barriers surrounding motorcycle-related isolated limb injuries at a regional hospital.

METHODS

A prospective descriptive study was conducted among patients with motorcycle-related isolated limb injuries at a Ugandan regional hospital between September 2017 and February 2018. Patients were surveyed upon admission and monitored throughout their course of treatment. Weight-bearing status and quality of life measures (EQ-5D) were assessed at four and 12 weeks.

RESULTS

One hundred twenty-four participants enrolled. Of the total participants, 12% refused definitive treatment. Among 108 treated patients, six experienced CAEs: four wound infections, one amputation, and one death. At 12 weeks follow-up, the majority of patients had no difficulty with mobility, pain/discomfort, or self-care, but 51% endorsed challenges completing certain daily chores, and 40% of patients could ambulate without an assistive device with restoration of pre-fracture gait. Both longer hospital stays and poorer 12-week functional recovery were seen among patients sustaining open fracture (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Treatment of isolated limb injuries at a Ugandan Regional Hospital was associated with minimal short-term CAEs. However, patients with more severe injuries may be at risk for delayed post-operative recovery. Future studies measuring long-term functional outcomes should be performed to better understand and optimize injury care in this population.

Characteristics and Injury Patterns of Road Traffic Injuries in Urban and Rural Uganda-A Retrospective Medical Record Review Study in Two Hospitals

In the ongoing Second Decade of Action for Road Safety, road traffic crashes pose a considerable threat especially in low-income countries. Uganda shows a vast burden of non-fatal injuries and resides at the top range of countries with the highest death rates due to unsafe roads. However, little is known about the differences in road traffic associated injuries between urban and rural areas and potential influence factors. Here, we used a cross-sectional study conducted by a retrospective medical record review from trauma cases admitted in 2016 to hospitals in rural and urban areas in Uganda. Injury severity scores were calculated and descriptive analysis was carried out while multivariate logistic regression was applied to assess significant covariates. According to the 1683 medical records reviewed, the mean age of trauma patients in the dataset under investigation was 30.8 years with 74% male. The trauma in-hospital mortality was 4% while prevalence of traumatic injuries is 56.4%. Motorcycle users (49.6%) and pedestrians (33.7%) were identified as the most vulnerable groups in both urban and rural setting while mild injuries of extremities (61.6%) and the head/neck-region (42.0%) were registered most. The frequency of road traffic injuries was homogenous in the urban and rural hospitals investigated in this study; interventions should therefore be intensified ubiquitously. The identification of significant differences in road traffic crash and injury characteristics provides the opportunity for specific programmes to decrease the socio-economic and health burden of unsafe roads. In addition to law enforcement and introduction of a Systems Thinking approach to road safety including infrastructural and educational concepts, the strengthening of trauma care and health resources is recommended.

Epidemiology of injured patients in rural Uganda: A prospective trauma registry's first 1000 days

Trauma is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Data characterizing the burden of injury in rural Uganda is limited. Hospital-based trauma registries are a critical tool in illustrating injury patterns and clinical outcomes. This study aims to characterize the traumatic injuries presenting to Soroti Regional Referral Hospital (SRRH) in order to identify opportunities for quality improvement and policy development. From October 2016 to July 2019, we prospectively captured data on injured patients using a locally designed, context-relevant trauma registry instrument. Information regarding patient demographics, injury characteristics, clinical information, and treatment outcomes were recorded. Descriptive, bivariate, and multivariate statistical analyses were conducted. A total of 4109 injured patients were treated during the study period. Median age was 26 years and 63% were male. Students (33%) and peasant farmers (31%) were the most affected occupations. Falls (36%) and road traffic injuries (RTIs, 35%) were the leading causes of injury. Nearly two-thirds of RTIs were motorcycle-related and only 16% involved a pedestrian. Over half (53%) of all patients had a fracture or a sprain. Suffering a burn or a head injury were significant predictors of mortality. The number of trauma patients enrolled in the study declined by five-fold when comparing the final six months and initial six months of the study. Implementation of a context-appropriate trauma registry in a resource-constrained setting is feasible. In rural Uganda, there is a significant need for injury prevention efforts to protect vulnerable populations such as children and women from trauma on roads and in the home. Orthopedic and neurosurgical care are important targets for the strengthening of health systems. The comprehensive data provided by a trauma registry will continue to inform such efforts and provide a way to monitor their progress moving forward.

Community-funded integrated care outreach clinics as a capacity building strategy to expand access to health care in remote areas of Uganda

Most Ugandans live in rural, medically underserved communities where geography and poverty lead to reduced access to healthcare. We present a novel low-cost approach for supplemental primary care financing through 1) pooling community wealth to cover overhead costs for outreach clinic activities and 2) issuing microfinance loans to motorcycle taxi entrepreneurs to overcome gaps in access to transportation. The intervention described here, which leverages community participation as a means to extend the reach of government health service delivery, was developed and implemented by Health Access Connect (HAC), a non-governmental organization based in Uganda. HAC began its work in August 2015 in the Lake Victoria region and now serves over 40 sites in Uganda across 5 districts, helping government health-care workers to provide over 1,300 patient services per month (and over 35,000 since the program's inception) with an average administrative cost of $6.24 per patient service in 2020. In this article, we demonstrate how integrated and appropriately resourced monthly outreach clinics, based on a microfinance-linked model of wealth pooling and government cooperation, can expand the capacity of government-provided healthcare to reach more patients living in remote communities. This scalable, sustainable, and flexible model is responsive to shifting needs of patients and health systems and presents an alternative approach to healthcare financing in low-resource settings. More rigorous evaluation of health outcomes stemming from such community-based models of service delivery is warranted.