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Niza Costa M, Gil T, Teixeira R, Rodrígues dos Santos AS, Rebelo Romão I, Sequero López C, Vílchez JI. Combined Use of a Bacterial Consortium and Early-Colonizing Plants as a Treatment for Soil Recovery after Fire: A Model Based on Los Guájares (Granada, Spain) Wildfire. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1093. [PMID: 37626979 PMCID: PMC10452388 DOI: 10.3390/biology12081093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
During 2022, intense heat waves, together with particularly extreme dry conditions, created a propitious scenario for wildfires, resulting in the area of vegetation consumed in Europe doubling. Mediterranean countries have been particularly affected, reaching 293,155 hectares in Spain, the worst data in the last 15 years. The effects on the vegetation and the soil are devastating, so knowing the recovery factors is essential for after-fire management. Resilient microorganisms play a fundamental role in rapid nutrient recycling, soil structure, and plant colonization in fire-affected soils. In this present work, we have studied emergent microbial communities in the case of the Los Guájares (Granada, Spain) fire, one of the most extensive of the year, to evaluate their role in the recovery of soil and vegetation cover. We aim to discern which are the main actors in order to formulate a new treatment that helps in the ecosystem recovery. Thus, we have found the relevant loss in phosphorous and potassium solubilizers, as well as siderophores or biofilm producers. Here, we decided to use the strains Pseudomonas koreensis AC, Peribacillus frigoritolerans CB, Pseudomonas fluorescens DC, Paenibacillus lautus C, Bacillus toyonensis CD, and Paenarthrobacter nitroguajacolicus AI as a consortium, as they showed most of the capacities required in a regenerative treatment. On the other hand, the microcosm test showed an enhanced pattern of germination of the emerging model plant, Bituminaria bituminosa, as well as a more aggregated structure for soil. This new approach can create a relevant approach in order to recover fire-affected soils in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marla Niza Costa
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica (ITQB)-NOVA, iPlantMicro Lab, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (M.N.C.); (T.G.); (R.T.); (A.S.R.d.S.); (I.R.R.)
| | - Tatiana Gil
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica (ITQB)-NOVA, iPlantMicro Lab, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (M.N.C.); (T.G.); (R.T.); (A.S.R.d.S.); (I.R.R.)
| | - Raquel Teixeira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica (ITQB)-NOVA, iPlantMicro Lab, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (M.N.C.); (T.G.); (R.T.); (A.S.R.d.S.); (I.R.R.)
| | - Ana Sofía Rodrígues dos Santos
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica (ITQB)-NOVA, iPlantMicro Lab, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (M.N.C.); (T.G.); (R.T.); (A.S.R.d.S.); (I.R.R.)
| | - Inês Rebelo Romão
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica (ITQB)-NOVA, iPlantMicro Lab, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (M.N.C.); (T.G.); (R.T.); (A.S.R.d.S.); (I.R.R.)
| | - Cristina Sequero López
- GeoBioTec, Department of Earth Sciences, NOVA School of Sciences and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campus de Caparica, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal;
| | - Juan Ignacio Vílchez
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica (ITQB)-NOVA, iPlantMicro Lab, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal; (M.N.C.); (T.G.); (R.T.); (A.S.R.d.S.); (I.R.R.)
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Roshan A, Biswas A. Fire-induced geochemical changes in soil: Implication for the element cycling. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 868:161714. [PMID: 36682541 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Soils play an essential role in supporting and sustaining life on this planet. In fire-impacted environments, fire causes considerable changes to the soil, especially in the various elements. The present work provides a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the effect of fire on soil geochemistry, and its impact on the cycling of different biogenic, major, minor, and trace elements in the soil. Results from both natural and experimental fires (field-scale and lab-scale) are considered in this review. The temperature at which mineral transformation occurs in the soil during fires is summarised. The review suggests that fires can significantly alter mobility and hence, the cycling of many elements in fire-affected regions. Change in speciation of elements following fires risks formation and/or increased availability of the toxic forms of elements in the soil. The unique physical, chemical, and biological conditions observed during fires make many unlikely reactions more likely. However, the information available in the literature is often fire, vegetation, and element specific. More studies on this topic by changing these three variables will improve our understanding of changes in the soil caused by fire. Hence, with fires being touted to increase global presence in the coming years, more studies on understanding their effects on soils are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajmal Roshan
- Environmental Geochemistry Laboratory, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Bhopal, Bhopal Bypass Road, Bhauri, Bhopal 462066, MP, India
| | - Ashis Biswas
- Environmental Geochemistry Laboratory, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Bhopal, Bhopal Bypass Road, Bhauri, Bhopal 462066, MP, India.
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Santini G, Memoli V, Vitale E, Di Natale G, Trifuoggi M, Maisto G, Santorufo L. Metal Release from Microplastics to Soil: Effects on Soil Enzymatic Activities and Spinach Production. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:3106. [PMID: 36833805 PMCID: PMC9963237 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20043106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) represent emergent pollutants in terrestrial ecosystems. Microplastics can cause the release of metal and damage to crop quality. The present research aimed to evaluate the effects of Mater-bi (Bio-MPs) and polyethylene (PE-MPs) MPs at different concentrations on soil properties and on the growth of Spinacia oleracea L. Plants were grown in 30 pots filled with soil mixed with 0.5, 1 and 2% d.w. of Bio-MPs and PE-MPs and in 5 pots filled only with soil, considered as controls (K). At the end of the vegetative cycle, the spinach plants were evaluated for the epigeal (EPI) and hypogeal (HYPO) biomasses and the ratio of HYPO/EPI was calculated. In the soil, the total and the available fractions of Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb and the hydrolase (HA), β-glucosidase (β-glu), dehydrogenase (DHA) and urease (U) activities were evaluated. The results revealed that the addition of Bio-MPs increased soil total Cr, Cu and Pb and available Cu concentrations, and the addition of PE-MPs increased Pb availability. In soil contaminated by both Bio-MPs and PE-MPs, HA and β-glu activities were stimulated, whereas DHA activity was reduced. The HYPO and HYPO/EPI biomasses were reduced only in soils contaminated by the 2% Bio-MPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Santini
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Valeria Memoli
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Ermenegilda Vitale
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Gabriella Di Natale
- CeSMA—Centre of Meteorologic and Avanced Thecnology Services, University of Naples Federico II, Nicolangelo Protopisani Course, San Giovanni a Teduccio, 80146 Naples, Italy
| | - Marco Trifuoggi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Giulia Maisto
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
- BAT Center—Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology, 80100 Naples, Italy
| | - Lucia Santorufo
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
- BAT Center—Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology, 80100 Naples, Italy
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Rascio I, Gattullo CE, Porfido C, Allegretta I, Spagnuolo M, Tiziani R, Celletti S, Cesco S, Mimmo T, Terzano R. Fire-induced effects on the bioavailability of potentially toxic elements in a polluted agricultural soil: implications for Cr uptake by durum wheat plants. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:6358-6372. [PMID: 35997877 PMCID: PMC9895035 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-22471-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Fire events can modify the distribution and speciation of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in soil, especially if they are associated to organic matter (OM). In fact, OM can undergo substantial structural modifications at high temperatures, up to the complete mineralization. The present study aims to investigate the changes of PTEs' bioavailability to durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) plants after simulating fire events (up to 300 °C and 500 °C) in an agricultural soil polluted by Cr, Zn, Cu, and Pb. The PTEs' uptake and allocation in plant tissues were assessed using the RHIZOtest system. After the fire simulations, no evident risk of accumulation and translocation in plants was observed for Zn, Pb, and Cu. Conversely, a high accumulation in roots and a significant translocation to shoots were observed for Cr, which reached concentrations of 829 mg kg-1 in roots and 52 mg kg-1 in shoots at 500 °C. Additional experimental evidence suggested that Cr was taken up by plants grown on heated soils as Cr(VI). Once acquired by roots, only a small part of Cr (up to 6%) was translocated to shoots where it was likely present as mobile forms, as evidenced by micro X-ray fluorescence (µ-XRF) analyses. Overall, the results obtained provide evidence that the high temperatures occurring during fire events can increase the mobility and bioavailability of certain PTEs transforming apparently safe environments into potentially dangerous sources of pollution. These processes can ultimately affect the human health through the food chain transfer of PTEs or their migration into surface water and groundwater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida Rascio
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via G. Amendola n. 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Concetta Eliana Gattullo
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via G. Amendola n. 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy.
| | - Carlo Porfido
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via G. Amendola n. 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Ignazio Allegretta
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via G. Amendola n. 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Matteo Spagnuolo
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via G. Amendola n. 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Raphael Tiziani
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Piazza Università n. 5, 39100, Bolzano, Italy
| | - Silvia Celletti
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Piazza Università n. 5, 39100, Bolzano, Italy
| | - Stefano Cesco
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Piazza Università n. 5, 39100, Bolzano, Italy
| | - Tanja Mimmo
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Piazza Università n. 5, 39100, Bolzano, Italy
| | - Roberto Terzano
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via G. Amendola n. 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy
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Soil Biological Responses under Different Vegetation Types in Mediterranean Area. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19020903. [PMID: 35055725 PMCID: PMC8775506 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19020903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The knowledge of the effects of fire on soil properties is of particular concern in Mediterranean areas, where the effects of vegetation type are still scarce also. This research aimed: to assess the properties of burnt soils under different vegetation types; to highlight the soil abiotic properties driving the soil microbial biomass and activity under each vegetation type; to compare the biological response in unburnt and burnt soils under the same vegetation type, and between unburnt and burnt soils under different vegetation types. The soils were collected at a Mediterranean area where a large wildfire caused a 50% loss of the previous vegetation types (holm oak: HO, pine: P, black locust: BL, and herbs: H), and were characterized by abiotic (pH, water, and organic matter contents; N concentrations; and C/N ratios) and biotic (microbial and fungal biomasses, microbial respiration, soil metabolic quotient, and hydrolase and dehydrogenase activities) properties. The biological response was evaluated by the Integrative Biological Responses (IBR) index. Before the fire, organic matter and N contents were significantly higher in P than H soils. After the fire, significant increases of pH, organic matter, C/N ratio, microbial biomass and respiration, and hydrolase and dehydrogenase activities were observed in all the soils, especially under HO. In conclusion, the post-fire soil conditions were less favorable for microorganisms, as the IBR index decreased when compared to the pre-fire conditions.
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Terzano R, Rascio I, Allegretta I, Porfido C, Spagnuolo M, Khanghahi MY, Crecchio C, Sakellariadou F, Gattullo CE. Fire effects on the distribution and bioavailability of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in agricultural soils. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 281:130752. [PMID: 34015649 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In the last years, uncontrolled fires are frequently occurring in forest and agricultural areas as an indirect effect of the rising aridity and global warming or caused by intentional illegal burnings. In addition, controlled burning is still largely used by farmers as an agricultural practice in many parts of the world. During fire events, soil can reach very high temperatures at the soil surface, causing dramatic changes of soil properties and elements biogeochemistry. Among soil elements, also potentially toxic elements (PTEs) can be affected by fires, becoming more or less mobile and bioavailable, depending on fire severity and soil characteristics. Such transformations could be particularly relevant in agricultural soils used for crop productions since fire events could modify PTEs speciation and uptake by plants and associated (micro)organisms thus endangering the whole food-chain. In this review, after describing the effects of fire on soil minerals and organic matter, the impact of fires on PTEs distribution and speciation in soils is presented, as well as their influence on soil microorganisms and plants uptake. The most common experimental methods used to simulate fires at the laboratory and field scale are briefly illustrated, and finally the impact that traditional and innovative agricultural practices can have on PTEs availability in burned agricultural soils is discussed in a future research perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Terzano
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy.
| | - Ida Rascio
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy.
| | - Ignazio Allegretta
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy.
| | - Carlo Porfido
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy.
| | - Matteo Spagnuolo
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy.
| | | | - Carmine Crecchio
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy.
| | - Fani Sakellariadou
- Department of Maritime Studies, Piraeus University, Grigoriou Lampraki 21 & Distomou, 18533, Piraeus, Greece.
| | - Concetta Eliana Gattullo
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126, Bari, Italy.
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Impact of Anthropic Activities on Soil Quality under Different Land Uses. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18168423. [PMID: 34444172 PMCID: PMC8393834 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18168423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Anthropization often leads to land use transformation, causing deep changes to soil properties and its quality. Land use change could be an environmental and socioeconomic problem, as it impacts soil quality and ecosystem services. There is an urgent need to understand the pressures affecting soil quality. The aim of the work is to quantify the impact of different land uses on soil abiotic and biotic properties and on its quality. To achieve the aims, soils from different land uses (forest, urban and agricultural) were collected in the surroundings of Naples and analyzed for pH, water content, contents of C and N, C/N ratio and total and available concentrations of Cu, Ni and Pb, microbial and fungal biomasses, basal respiration and metabolic quotient. Then, a soil quality index (SQI) was calculated for each land use. The results showed that soil abiotic and biotic properties of the agricultural sites differed from those of forest and urban sites. At agricultural sites, microbial abundances decreased due to low amount of C and N and to high amount of Cu and Pb. This caused low use efficiency of energetic substrates and a reduced soil quality of agricultural sites as compared to forest and urban sites.
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Santorufo L, Memoli V, Panico SC, Santini G, Barile R, Giarra A, Di Natale G, Trifuoggi M, De Marco A, Maisto G. Combined Effects of Wildfire and Vegetation Cover Type on Volcanic Soil (Functions and Properties) in A Mediterranean Region: Comparison of Two Soil Quality Indices. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18115926. [PMID: 34073007 PMCID: PMC8198198 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18115926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mediterranean regions are the most impacted by fire in Europe. The effects of fire on soil greatly vary according to several factors such as vegetation cover type, but they are scarcely studied. Therefore, this research aimed at evaluating the combined impacts of fire and vegetation on single soil characteristics and on the overall soil quality and functionality through two soil quality indices, simple additive (SQI) and a weighted function (SQIFUNCT). In order to reach the aims, burnt and unburnt soils were collected under different vegetation cover types (herbs and shrubs, black locust, pine and holm oak) within the Vesuvius National Park. The soils were analyzed for the main abiotic (water and organic matter content, total C, N, Ca, K, Cu and Pb concentrations, C/N ratio) and biotic (microbial and fungal biomasses, basal respiration, β-glucosidase activity) characteristics. On the basis of the investigated soil characteristics, several soil functions (water retention, nutrient supply, contamination content, microorganism habitat and activities), and the soil quality indices were calculated. The results showed that the impact of fire on soil quality and functionality was mediated by the vegetation cover type. In fact, fire occurrence led to a decrease in water and C/N ratio under herbs, a decrease in C concentration under holm oak and a decrease in Cu and Pb concentrations under pine. Although the soil characteristics showed significant changes according to vegetation cover types and fire occurrence, both the additive and weighted function soil quality indices did not significantly vary according to both fire occurrence and the vegetation cover type. Among the different vegetation cover types, pine was the most impacted one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Santorufo
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (L.S.); (S.C.P.); (G.S.); (G.M.)
- BAT Center—Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy;
| | - Valeria Memoli
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (L.S.); (S.C.P.); (G.S.); (G.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-08167911
| | - Speranza Claudia Panico
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (L.S.); (S.C.P.); (G.S.); (G.M.)
| | - Giorgia Santini
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (L.S.); (S.C.P.); (G.S.); (G.M.)
| | - Rossella Barile
- Parco Nazionale del Vesuvio, Via Palazzo del Principe c/o Castello Mediceo, 80044 Ottaviano, Italy;
| | - Antonella Giarra
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (A.G.); (G.D.N.); (M.T.)
| | - Gabriella Di Natale
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (A.G.); (G.D.N.); (M.T.)
- CeSMA-Centro Servizi Metrologici e Tecnologici Avanzati, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Corso Nicolangelo Protopisani, 80146 San Giovanni a Teduccio, Italy
| | - Marco Trifuoggi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (A.G.); (G.D.N.); (M.T.)
| | - Anna De Marco
- BAT Center—Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy;
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Montesano, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Giulia Maisto
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Cinthia, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (L.S.); (S.C.P.); (G.S.); (G.M.)
- BAT Center—Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy;
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