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Anoraga SB, Shamsudin R, Hamzah MH, Sharif S, Saputro AD. Cocoa by-products: A comprehensive review on potential uses, waste management, and emerging green technologies for cocoa pod husk utilization. Heliyon 2024; 10:e35537. [PMID: 39220910 PMCID: PMC11365323 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Revised: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Cocoa is considered to be one of the most significant agricultural commodities globally, alongside Palm Oil and Rubber. Cocoa is the primary ingredient in the manufacturing of chocolate, a globally popular food product. Approximately 30Â % of cocoa, specifically cocoa nibs, are used as the primary constituent in chocolate production., while the other portion is either discarded in landfills as compost or repurposed as animal feed. Cocoa by-products consist of cocoa pod husk (CPH), cocoa shell, and pulp, of which about 70Â % of the fruit is composed of CPH. CPH is a renewable resource rich in dietary fiber, lignin, and bioactive antioxidants like polyphenols that are being underutilized. CPH has the potential to be used as a source of pectin, dietary fibre, antibacterial properties, encapsulation material, xylitol as a sugar substitute, a fragrance compound, and in skin care applications. Several methods can be used to manage CPH waste using green technology and then transformed into valuable commodities, including pectin sources. Innovations in extraction procedures for the production of functional compounds can be utilized to increase yields and enhance existing uses. This review focuses on the physicochemical of CPH, its potential use, waste management, and green technology of cocoa by-products, particularly CPH pectin, in order to provide information for its development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satria Bhirawa Anoraga
- Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Bioresources Technology and Veterinary, Vocational College, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
| | - Rosnah Shamsudin
- Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
- Institute of Plantations Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Hazwan Hamzah
- SMART Farming Technology Research Centre, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Suzannah Sharif
- Cocoa Innovation and Technology Centre, Malaysian Cocoa Board, Lot 12621, Nilai Industrial Area, Nilai, 71800, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia
| | - Arifin Dwi Saputro
- Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
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2
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A mini-review on the plant sources and methods for extraction of rhamnogalacturonan I. Food Chem 2023; 403:134378. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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3
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Yeh YC, Lai LS. Effect of Extraction Procedures with Ultrasound and Cellulolytic Enzymes on the Structural and Functional Properties of Citrus grandis Osbeck Seed Mucilage. Molecules 2022; 27:612. [PMID: 35163877 PMCID: PMC8838855 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27030612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The structural and functional properties of Citrus grandis Osbeck (CGO) seed mucilage by different extraction practices, including conventional citrate buffer, ultrasonic-assisted (UAE), enzymatic-assisted extraction (EAE) with cellulase or Celluclast® 1.5 L and various ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic extraction (UAEE) procedures were investigated. It was found that CGO seed from agricultural and processing byproducts is an excellent new source of high methoxyl pectin with quite high intrinsic viscosity (about 108.64 dL/g) and molecular weight (about 1.9 × 106) as compared with other pectin sources. UAEE with Celluclast® 1.5 L enhanced the extraction yield most pronouncedly (about 2.3 times). Moreover, the monosaccharide composition of CGO seed mucilage is least affected by EAE with Celluclast® 1.5 L. In contrast, EAE with cellulase dramatically reduces the galacturonic acid (GalA) content to less than 60 molar%, and increases the glucose (Glc) content pronouncedly (to about 40 molar%), which may be considered as an adverse effect in terms of pectin purity. Though extraction procedures involved with ultrasound and cellulolytic enzymes generally show a decrease in GalA contents, weight average molar mass and intrinsic viscosity, EAE with Celluclast® 1.5 L is least affected, followed by UAE and UAEE with Celluclast® 1.5 L. These features can be leveraged in favor of diversified applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lih-Shiuh Lai
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, National Chung Hsing University, 145 Xingda Road, Taichung 40227, Taiwan;
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4
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Çavdaroğlu E, Yemenicioğlu A. Utilization of stalk waste separated during processing of sun-dried figs (Ficus carica) as a source of pectin: Extraction and determination of molecular and functional properties. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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5
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Shavakhi F, Chai KF, Ghazali HM. Enzymatic maceration and liquefaction of pumpkin (
Cucurbita moschata
L.) flesh for the preparation of a suitable base feed for spray drying. J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.15075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Forough Shavakhi
- Faculty of Food Science and Technology Universiti Putra Malaysia Selangor Malaysia
| | - Kong Fei Chai
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering Nanyang Technological University Singapore Singapore
| | - Hasanah M. Ghazali
- Faculty of Food Science and Technology Universiti Putra Malaysia Selangor Malaysia
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6
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Temperature dependence of acid and calcium-induced low-methoxyl pectin gel extracted from Cyclea barbata Miers. Food Hydrocoll 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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7
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Zeng X, Wang X, Zhao H, Xi Y, Cao J, Jiang W. Protective effects of banana pectin against aluminum-induced cognitive impairment and aluminum accumulation in mice. Drug Chem Toxicol 2018; 41:294-301. [PMID: 29578368 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2017.1400043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the effect of pectin on absorption and bio-toxicity of aluminum, pectin extract (100 mg kg-1 d-1) from banana pulp was orally administrated to aluminum exposed mice (35 mg kg-1 d-1) for 6 weeks. Our result showed that body weight gain of the mice treated with aluminum plus banana pectin was 32.5% higher than that of mice exposed to aluminum alone after 6 weeks of the administration. In both the step-down inhibitory avoidance task and Morris water maze test, memory retention of aluminum-exposed mice was significantly improved by the pectin administration. Treatment with banana pectin effectively prevented absorption of aluminum from the gastrointestinal tract, total aluminum excretion of mice treated with banana pectin plus aluminum was 9.3% higher than that of mice exposed to aluminum alone on the 12th day. Aluminum level in serum, cerebrum, or cerebellum of mice treated with aluminum plus banana pectin was 30.8%, 17.5%, or 17.9% lower than that of mice exposed to aluminum alone on the 42nd day, respectively. In conclusion, banana pectin extract can effectively reduce aluminum toxicity in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangquan Zeng
- a College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering , China Agricultural University , Beijing , PR China
| | - Xiaomei Wang
- a College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering , China Agricultural University , Beijing , PR China
| | - Handong Zhao
- a College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering , China Agricultural University , Beijing , PR China
| | - Yu Xi
- a College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering , China Agricultural University , Beijing , PR China
| | - Jiankang Cao
- a College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering , China Agricultural University , Beijing , PR China
| | - Weibo Jiang
- a College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering , China Agricultural University , Beijing , PR China
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Yuliarti O, Chong SY, Goh KKT. Physicochemical properties of pectin from green jelly leaf (Cyclea barbata Miers). Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 103:1146-1154. [PMID: 28577980 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.05.147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The water extract of Green Jelly leaves (GJL) obtained by crushing the leaves in water (1:40) was capable of forming a gel at room temperature. The composition of GJL consisted mainly of carbohydrate (∼70w/w), protein (∼13% w/w) and minerals (∼6% w/w). The mineral portion consisted of mainly calcium (∼1.2% w/w), zinc (∼0.12% w/w) and magnesium (∼0.11% w/w). The isolated polysaccharide fraction (∼42.6% w/w) consisted of mainly galacturonic acid (∼35.8% w/w) and neutral sugars (∼6.8% w/w), with a weight-average molecular weight of ∼4.4×105g/mol. The results obtained by Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) showed that GJL polysaccharide fraction had a fairly similar FTIR fingerprint as the commercial low-methoxyl pectin (LMP). The degree of esterification of the polysaccharide changed drastically (from 97% to 10%) depending on the temperature used during the extraction process. The zeta potential of the extracted polysaccharide showed high negative charged as compared to the commercial LMP but close to sodium alginate. The study showed that the gelation was divalent cation-mediated and probably facilitated by the low degree of esterification which reduced steric hindrance from the methyl ester groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Yuliarti
- School of Chemical and Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic,500 Dover Road, Singapore.
| | - S Y Chong
- School of Food and Nutrition, Massey Institute of Food Science & Technology, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - K K T Goh
- School of Food and Nutrition, Massey Institute of Food Science & Technology, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Yuliarti O, Goh KK, Matia-Merino L, Mawson J, Brennan C. Extraction and characterisation of pomace pectin from gold kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis). Food Chem 2015; 187:290-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2015] [Revised: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Wikiera A, Mika M, Starzyńska-Janiszewska A, Stodolak B. Application of Celluclast 1.5L in apple pectin extraction. Carbohydr Polym 2015; 134:251-7. [PMID: 26428122 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.07.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Pectins were extracted from apple pomace with Celluclast 1.5L at a dose of 25, 50 and 75 μl per 1g of material. In obtained pectin, the galacturonic acid (GalA) content, the neutral sugars (NS) profile, the degree of methylation (DM) and acetylation (DAc), the molecular mass, protein, ash and polyphenol levels as well as antioxidant and antitumor activity were determined. The lowest dose of enzymatic preparation resulted in the yield of pectin isolation comparable with acidic treatment (15.3%). Application of higher dose caused further, almost 4% increase in polymer recovery. Enzymatically isolated pectin was characterised by larger molecular mass and contained more GalA of higher DM and DAc than polymer extracted with acid. It was also richer in protein and polyphenols, and had different NS profile, which resulted in higher antiradical activity as well as the ability to inhibit the proliferation and invasion of Caco-2 adenocarcinoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Wikiera
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Food Technology, Agricultural University of Cracow, 31-149 Kraków, ul. Balicka 122, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Mika
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Food Technology, Agricultural University of Cracow, 31-149 Kraków, ul. Balicka 122, Poland
| | - Anna Starzyńska-Janiszewska
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Food Technology, Agricultural University of Cracow, 31-149 Kraków, ul. Balicka 122, Poland
| | - Bożena Stodolak
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Food Technology, Agricultural University of Cracow, 31-149 Kraków, ul. Balicka 122, Poland
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Kuznetsova L, LudmilaZabodalova, Domoroshchenkova M. Lupinwhey as a Perspective Substrate for Bioethanol Production. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.egypro.2015.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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12
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Wikiera A, Mika M, Grabacka M. Multicatalytic enzyme preparations as effective alternative to acid in pectin extraction. Food Hydrocoll 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2014.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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13
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Characterization of gold kiwifruit pectin from fruit of different maturities and extraction methods. Food Chem 2015; 166:479-485. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.06.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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14
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Wikiera A, Mika M, Starzyńska-Janiszewska A, Stodolak B. Development of complete hydrolysis of pectins from apple pomace. Food Chem 2014; 172:675-80. [PMID: 25442606 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.09.132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Enzymatically extracted pectins have a more complex structure than those obtained by conventional methods. As a result, they are less susceptible to hydrolysis, which makes the precise determination of their composition difficult. The aim of the study was to develop a method of complete hydrolysis of enzymatically extracted apple pectins. Substrates were pectins isolated from apple pomace by the use of xylanase and multicatalytic preparation Celluclast and apple pomace. Hydrolysis was performed by a chemical method with 2M TFA at 100 °C and 120 °C and a combined acidic/enzymatic method. After hydrolysis, the contents of galacturonic acid and neutral sugars were measured by HPLC. Complete hydrolysis of polygalacturonic acid occurred after 2.5h incubation with 2M TFA at 120 °C. The efficient hydrolysis of neutral sugars in pectins was performed with 2M TFA at 100 °C for 2.5h. Monomers most susceptible to concentrated acid were rhamnose, mannose and arabinose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Wikiera
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Food Technology, Agricultural University of Cracow, 31-149 Kraków, ul. Balicka 122, Poland.
| | - Magdalena Mika
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Food Technology, Agricultural University of Cracow, 31-149 Kraków, ul. Balicka 122, Poland
| | - Anna Starzyńska-Janiszewska
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Food Technology, Agricultural University of Cracow, 31-149 Kraków, ul. Balicka 122, Poland
| | - Bożena Stodolak
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Food Technology, Agricultural University of Cracow, 31-149 Kraków, ul. Balicka 122, Poland
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15
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Fernandes A, Brás NF, Mateus N, de Freitas V. Understanding the molecular mechanism of anthocyanin binding to pectin. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2014; 30:8516-8527. [PMID: 24991843 DOI: 10.1021/la501879w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Association between anthocyanins and carbohydrates has drawn attention over the past few years and this interaction is of particularly importance in food chemistry since these compounds are often found together in plants and foodstuffs. This work intended to bring insights on the interaction between ionic carbohydrates (pectin) and two anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, cy3glc and delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, dp3glc). The interaction between the flavylium cation and hemiketal anthocyanin forms was characterized by saturation transfer difference (STD) NMR spectroscopy and the respective dissociation constant (Kd) was obtained. This binding was also studied by Molecular Dynamics simulation. In the presence of the anthocyanin hemiketal form a weak interaction between anthocyanins and pectin seems to occur. A variation in the extent of this interaction was also noticed for the two anthocyanins with dp3glc bearing three hydroxyl groups, revealing to be a stronger binder to pectin (Kd ≈ 180 μM for dp3glc and Kd ≈ 250 μM for cy3glc). Experiments performed at acidic pH (flavylium cation) revealed a much stronger interaction (Kd ≈ 2 μM). These experimental results were also supported by theoretical studies which also revealed a stronger interaction in the presence of the anthocyanin flavylium cation and also a stronger interaction between pectin and dp3glc than with cy3glc (for the hemiketal form).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Fernandes
- Centro de Investigação em QuÃmica (CIQ) and ‡REQUIMTE, Departamento de QuÃmica e BioquÃmica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto , Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
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16
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Alvarenga L, Dutra M, Alvarenga R, Lacerda I, Yoshida M, Oliveira E. Analysis of alcoholic fermentation of pulp and residues from pineapple processing. CYTA - JOURNAL OF FOOD 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/19476337.2014.902865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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17
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Sims IM, Monro JA. Fiber: composition, structures, and functional properties. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2013; 68:81-99. [PMID: 23394983 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394294-4.00005-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Kiwifruit dietary fiber consists of cell-wall polysaccharides that are typical of the cell walls of many dicotyledonous fruits, being composed of pectic polysaccharides, hemicelluloses, and cellulose. The kiwifruit pectic polysaccharides consist of homo- and rhamnogalacturonans with various neutral, (arabino)-galactan side chains, while the hemicelluloses are mostly xyloglucan and xylan. The proportions of pectic polysaccharide, hemicellulose, and cellulose in both green 'Hayward' and 'Zespri® Gold' are similar and are little affected by in vitro exposure to gastric and small intestinal digestion. The hydration properties of the kiwifruit-swelling and water retention capacity-are also unaffected by foregut digestion, indicating that the functional properties of kiwifruit fiber survive in the foregut. However, in the hindgut, kiwifruit fiber is fermented, but whole kiwifruit consumed in association with slowly fermented fiber leads to distal displacement of fermentation, indicating that hindgut benefits of kiwifruit may result from its interaction with other dietary sources of fiber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian M Sims
- Industrial Research Limited, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
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18
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Nguyá»…n HVH, Savage GP. The effects of temperature and pH on the extraction of oxalate and pectin from green kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosaL.), golden kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensisL.), kiwiberry (Actinidia arguta) and persimmon (Diospyros kaki). Int J Food Sci Technol 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.12029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hà VHồng Nguyễn
- Food Technology Department; Biotechnology School; International University; Ho Chi Minh City; Vietnam
| | - Geoffrey Peter Savage
- Food Group; Wine Food and Molecular Biosciences; Lincoln University; Canterbury; New Zealand
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19
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Effects of simulated digestion in vitro on cell wall polysaccharides from kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.). Food Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.12.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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