Gene Mapping, Cloning and Association Analysis for Salt Tolerance in Rice

Salt Tolerance in Sugar Beet: From Impact Analysis to Adaptive Mechanisms and Future Research

The continuous global escalation of soil salinization areas presents severe challenges to the stability and growth of agricultural development across the world. In-depth research on sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.), an important economic and sugar crop with salt tolerance characteristics, is crucial for to determine its salt-tolerance mechanisms, which has important practical implications for production. This review summarizes the multifaceted effects of salt stress on sugar beet, ranging from individual plant responses to cellular and molecular adaptations. Sugar beet exhibits robust salt-tolerance mechanisms, including osmotic regulation, ion balance management, and the compartmentalization of toxic ions. Omics technologies, including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, post-translational modification omics and metabolomics, have played crucial roles in elucidating these mechanisms. Key genes and pathways involved in salt tolerance in sugar beet have been identified, paving the way for targeted breeding strategies and biotechnological advancements. Understanding these mechanisms not only enhances our knowledge of sugar beet's adaptation strategies but also provides insights for improving salt tolerance in other crops. Future studies should focus on analyzing gene expression changes in sugar beet under salt stress to gain insight into the molecular aspects of its salt-tolerance mechanisms. Meanwhile, the effects of different environmental conditions on sugar beet adaptation strategies should also be investigated to improve their growth potential in salinized soils.

Understanding of Plant Salt Tolerance Mechanisms and Application to Molecular Breeding

Soil salinization is a widespread hindrance that endangers agricultural production and ecological security. High salt concentrations in saline soils are primarily caused by osmotic stress, ionic toxicity and oxidative stress, which have a negative impact on plant growth and development. In order to withstand salt stress, plants have developed a series of complicated physiological and molecular mechanisms, encompassing adaptive changes in the structure and function of various plant organs, as well as the intricate signal transduction networks enabling plants to survive in high-salinity environments. This review summarizes the recent advances in salt perception under different tissues, physiological responses and signaling regulations of plant tolerance to salt stress. We also examine the current knowledge of strategies for breeding salt-tolerant plants, including the applications of omics technologies and transgenic approaches, aiming to provide the basis for the cultivation of salt-tolerant crops through molecular breeding. Finally, future research on the application of wild germplasm resources and muti-omics technologies to discover new tolerant genes as well as investigation of crosstalk among plant hormone signaling pathways to uncover plant salt tolerance mechanisms are also discussed in this review.

Integration Linkage Mapping and Comparative Transcriptome Analysis to Dissect the Genetic Basis of Rice Salt Tolerance Associated with the Germination Stage

Soil salinity poses a serious threat to rice production. The salt tolerance of rice at the germination stage is one of the major determinants of stable stand establishment, which is very important for direct seeding in saline soil. The complexity and polygenic nature of salt tolerance have limited the efficiency of discovering and cloning key genes in rice. In this study, an RIL population with an ultra-high-density genetic map was employed to investigate the salt-tolerant genetic basis in rice, and a total of 20 QTLs were detected, including a major and stable QTL (qRCL3-1). Subsequently, salt-specific DEGs from a comparative transcriptome analysis were overlaid onto annotated genes located on a stable QTL interval, and eight putative candidate genes were further identified. Finally, from the sequence alignment and variant analysis, OsCam1-1 was confirmed to be the most promising candidate gene for regulating salinity tolerance in rice. This study provides important information for elucidating the genetic and molecular basis of rice salt tolerance at the germination stage, and the genes detected here will be useful for improvements in rice salt tolerance.

Tools and Techniques to Accelerate Crop Breeding

As climate changes and a growing global population continue to escalate the need for greater production capabilities of food crops, technological advances in agricultural and crop research will remain a necessity. While great advances in crop improvement over the past century have contributed to massive increases in yield, classic breeding schemes lack the rate of genetic gain needed to meet future demands. In the past decade, new breeding techniques and tools have been developed to aid in crop improvement. One such advancement is the use of speed breeding. Speed breeding is known as the application of methods that significantly reduce the time between crop generations, thereby streamlining breeding and research efforts. These rapid-generation advancement tactics help to accelerate the pace of crop improvement efforts to sustain food security and meet the food, feed, and fiber demands of the world's growing population. Speed breeding may be achieved through a variety of techniques, including environmental optimization, genomic selection, CRISPR-Cas9 technology, and epigenomic tools. This review aims to discuss these prominent advances in crop breeding technologies and techniques that have the potential to greatly improve plant breeders' ability to rapidly produce vital cultivars.

Progress in Rice Breeding Based on Genomic Research

The role of rice genomics in breeding progress is becoming increasingly important. Deeper research into the rice genome will contribute to the identification and utilization of outstanding functional genes, enriching the diversity and genetic basis of breeding materials and meeting the diverse demands for various improvements. Here, we review the significant contributions of rice genomics research to breeding progress over the last 25 years, discussing the profound impact of genomics on rice genome sequencing, functional gene exploration, and novel breeding methods, and we provide valuable insights for future research and breeding practices.

Screening of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Genotypes for Salinity Tolerance and Dissecting Determinants of Tolerance Mechanism

Soil salinity imposes osmotic, ionic, and oxidative stresses on plants, resulting in growth inhibition, developmental changes, metabolic adaptations, and ion sequestration or exclusion. Identifying salinity-tolerant resources and understanding physiological and molecular mechanisms of salinity tolerance could lay a foundation for the improvement of salinity tolerance in rice. In this study, a series of salinity-tolerance-related morphological and physiological traits were investigated in 46 rice genotypes, including Sea Rice 86, to reveal the main strategies of rice in responding to salinity stress at the seedling stage. No genotypes showed the same tolerance level as the two landraces Pokkali and Nona Bokra, which remain the donors for improving the salinity tolerance of rice. However, due to undesirable agronomic traits of these donors, alternative cultivars such as JC118S and R1 are recommended as novel source of salinity tolerance. Correlation and principal component analyses revealed that the salinity tolerance of rice seedlings is not only controlled by growth vigor but also regulated by ion transport pathways such as long-distance Na+ transport, root Na+ sequestration, and root K+ retention. Therefore, such key traits should be targeted in future breeding programs as the strategy of obtaining better Na+ exclusion is still the bottleneck for improving salinity tolerance in rice.

Development of early maturing salt-tolerant rice variety KKL(R) 3 using a combination of conventional and molecular breeding approaches

Introduction: Soil salinity poses a severe threat to rice production, resulting in stunted growth, leaf damage, and substantial yield losses. This study focuses on developing an early maturing seedling stage salinity tolerant rice variety by integrating conventional breeding methods with marker assisted breeding (MAB) approaches. Methods: Seedling-stage salinity tolerance Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) "Saltol" from the salt-tolerant parent FL478 was introduced into the high-yielding but salt-sensitive rice variety ADT 45. This was achieved through a combination of conventional breeding and MAB. The breeding process involved rigorous selection, screening, and physiological parameter assessments. Results: KKL(R) 3 (KR 15066) identified as the top performing Recombinant Inbred Line (RIL), consistently demonstrating maximum mean grain yields under both salinity (3435.6 kg/ha) and normal (6421.8 kg/ha) conditions. In comparison to the early maturing, salt-tolerant national check variety CSR 10, KKL(R) 3 exhibited a substantial yield increase over 50%. Discussion: The notable improvement observed in KKL(R) 3 positions it as a promising variety for release, offering a reliable solution to maximize yields, ensure food security, and promote agricultural sustainability in both saline and non-saline environments. The study highlights the effectiveness of MAB in developing salt-tolerant rice varieties and emphasizes the significance of the Saltol QTL in enhancing seedling stage salinity tolerance. The potential release of KKL(R) 3 has the capacity to revolutionize rice production in salt affected regions, providing farmers with a reliable solution to maximize yields and contribute to food security while ensuring agricultural sustainability.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Underlying Response Mechanism to Salt Stress in Maize Seedling Roots

Crop growth and development can be impeded by salt stress, leading to a significant decline in crop yield and quality. This investigation performed a comparative analysis of the physiological responses of two maize inbred lines, namely L318 (CML115) and L323 (GEMS58), under salt-stress conditions. The results elucidated that CML115 exhibited higher salt tolerance compared with GEMS58. Transcriptome analysis of the root system revealed that DEGs shared by the two inbred lines were significantly enriched in the MAPK signaling pathway-plant and plant hormone signal transduction, which wield an instrumental role in orchestrating the maize response to salt-induced stress. Furthermore, the DEGs' exclusivity to salt-tolerant genotypes was associated with sugar metabolism pathways, and these unique DEGs may account for the disparities in salt tolerance between the two genotypes. Meanwhile, we investigated the dynamic global transcriptome in the root systems of seedlings at five time points after salt treatment and compared transcriptome data from different genotypes to examine the similarities and differences in salt tolerance mechanisms of different germplasms.

Haplotype analysis and marker development of five salt-tolerant-related genes in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Salinity stress is a great threat to the growth and productivity of crops, and development of salt-tolerant crops is of great necessity to ensure food security. Although a few genes with natural variations that confer salt tolerance at germination and seedling stage in rice have been cloned, effective intragenic markers for these genes are awaited to be developed, which hinder the use of these genes in genetic improvement of salt tolerance in rice. In this study, we first performed haplotype analysis of five rice salt-tolerant-related genes using 38 rice accessions with reference genome and 4,726 rice germplasm accessions with imputed genotypes and classified main haplotype groups and haplotypes. Subsequently, we identified unique variations for elite haplotypes reported in previous studies and developed 11 effective intragenic makers. Finally, we conducted genotyping of 533 of the 4,726 rice accessions from worldwide and 70 approved temperate geng/japonica cultivars in China using the developed markers. These results could provide effective donors and markers of salt-tolerant-related genes and thus could be of great use in genetic improvement of salt tolerance in rice.

Genetic Dissection of Salt Tolerance and Yield Traits of Geng (japonica) Rice by Selective Subspecific Introgression

Salinity is a major factor limiting rice productivity, and developing salt-tolerant (ST) varieties is the most efficient approach. Seventy-eight ST introgression lines (ILs), including nine promising lines with improved ST and yield potential (YP), were developed from four BC₂F₄ populations from inter-subspecific crosses between an elite Geng (japonica) recipient and four Xian (indica) donors at the Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Genome-wide characterization of donor introgression identified 35 ST QTLs, 25 of which harbor 38 cloned ST genes as the most likely QTL candidates. Thirty-four are Xian-Geng differentiated ones with the donor (Xian) alleles associated with ST, suggesting differentiated responses to salt stress were one of the major phenotypic differences between the two subspecies. At least eight ST QTLs and many others affecting yield traits were identified under salt/non-stress conditions. Our results indicated that the Xian gene pool contains rich 'hidden' genetic variation for developing superior Geng varieties with improved ST and YP, which could be efficiently exploited by selective introgression. The developed ST ILs and their genetic information on the donor alleles for ST and yield traits would provide a useful platform for developing superior ST and high-yield Geng varieties through breeding by design in the future.

Improvement of Salinity Tolerance in Water-Saving and Drought-Resistance Rice (WDR)

Rice is one of the most economically important staple food crops in the world. Soil salinization and drought seriously restrict sustainable rice production. Drought aggravates the degree of soil salinization, and, at the same time, increased soil salinity also inhibits water absorption, resulting in physiological drought stress. Salt tolerance in rice is a complex quantitative trait controlled by multiple genes. This review presents and discusses the recent research developments on salt stress impact on rice growth, rice salt tolerance mechanisms, the identification and selection of salt-tolerant rice resources, and strategies to improve rice salt tolerance. In recent years, the increased cultivation of water-saving and drought-resistance rice (WDR) has shown great application potential in alleviating the water resource crisis and ensuring food and ecological security. Here, we present an innovative germplasm selection strategy of salt-tolerant WDR, using a population that is developed by recurrent selection based on dominant genic male sterility. We aim to provide a reference for efficient genetic improvement and germplasm innovation of complex traits (drought and salt tolerance) that can be translated into breeding all economically important cereal crops.

Potential abiotic stress targets for modern genetic manipulation

Research into crop yield and resilience has underpinned global food security, evident in yields tripling in the past 5 decades. The challenges that global agriculture now faces are not just to feed 10+ billion people within a generation, but to do so under a harsher, more variable, and less predictable climate, and in many cases with less water, more expensive inputs, and declining soil quality. The challenges of climate change are not simply to breed for a "hotter drier climate," but to enable resilience to floods and droughts and frosts and heat waves, possibly even within a single growing season. How well we prepare for the coming decades of climate variability will depend on our ability to modify current practices, innovate with novel breeding methods, and communicate and work with farming communities to ensure viability and profitability. Here we define how future climates will impact farming systems and growing seasons, thereby identifying the traits and practices needed and including exemplars being implemented and developed. Critically, this review will also consider societal perspectives and public engagement about emerging technologies for climate resilience, with participatory approaches presented as the best approach.

Heterologous expression of the TaPI-PLC1-2B gene enhanced drought and salt tolerance in transgenic rice seedlings

Drought and salt stress are important factors that affect plant growth and development and cause crop yield reductions worldwide. Phospholipase C is a class of enzymes that can hydrolyze phospholipids, and it has been shown to play an important role in plant growth regulation and stress response. We used rice as a model to investigate the function of the wheat TaPI-PLC1-2B gene in salt and drought tolerance. For this purpose, we heterologously expressed the TaPI-PLC1-2B gene in rice and studied the transcriptional differences in transgenic and wide-type rice plants in the presence and absence of drought and salt stress. Our results showed that 2130 and 1759 genes expressed differentially in the TaPI-PLC1-2B overexpression rice line under salt and drought stress, respectively. Gene ontology enrichment results showed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were significantly enriched in cellular process, metabolic process, stimulus-response, cell, organelle, catalytic activity, and other functional processes under salt and drought stress. In addition, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis showed DEG enrichment in plant-pathogen interaction, phosphoinositol, plant hormones, and other signaling pathways under the two stress treatments. Furthermore, the chromosomal localization of salt and drought stress-responsive DEGs showed a clear distribution pattern on specific rice chromosomes. For instance, the greatest number of drought stress-responsive genes mapped to rice chromosomes 1 and 6. The current analysis has built the basis for future explorations to decipher the TaPI-PLC1-2B-mediated plant stress response mechanism in the relatively challenging wheat system.

Mapping QTLs for Reproductive Stage Salinity Tolerance in Rice Using a Cross between Hasawi and BRRI dhan28

Salinity stress is a major constraint to rice production in many coastal regions due to saline groundwater and river sources, especially during the dry season in coastal areas when seawater intrudes further inland due to reduced river flows. Since salinity tolerance is a complex trait, breeding efforts can be assisted by mapping quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for complementary salt tolerance mechanisms, which can then be combined to provide higher levels of tolerance. While an abundance of seedling stage salinity tolerance QTLs have been mapped, few studies have investigated reproductive stage tolerance in rice due to the difficulty of achieving reliable stage-specific phenotyping techniques. In the current study, a BC₁F₂ mapping population consisting of 435 individuals derived from a cross between a salt-tolerant Saudi Arabian variety, Hasawi, and a salt-sensitive Bangladeshi variety, BRRI dhan28, was evaluated for yield components after exposure to EC 10 dS/m salinity stress during the reproductive stage. After selecting tolerant and sensitive progeny, 190 individuals were genotyped by skim sequencing, resulting in 6209 high quality single nucleotide polymorphic (SNP) markers. Subsequently, a total of 40 QTLs were identified, of which 24 were for key traits, including productive tillers, number and percent filled spikelets, and grain yield under stress. Importantly, three yield-related QTLs, one each for productive tillers (qPT3.1), number of filled spikelets (qNFS3.1) and grain yield (qGY3.1) under salinity stress, were mapped at the same position (6.7 Mb or 26.1 cM) on chromosome 3, which had not previously been associated with grain yield under salinity stress. These QTLs can be investigated further to dissect the molecular mechanisms underlying reproductive stage salinity tolerance in rice.

Molecular tools, potential frontiers for enhancing salinity tolerance in rice: A critical review and future prospective

Improvement of salinity tolerance in rice can minimize the stress-induced yield losses. Rice (Oryza sativa) is one of Asia's most widely consumed crops, native to the subtropical regions, and is generally associated with sensitivity to salinity stress episodes. Salt-tolerant rice genotypes have been developed using conventional breeding methods; however, the success ratio is limited because of the complex nature of the trait and the high cost of development. The narrow genetic base of rice limited the success of conventional breeding methods. Hence, it is critical to launch the molecular tools for screening rice novel germplasm for salt-tolerant genes. In this regard, the latest molecular techniques like quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping, genetic engineering (GE), transcription factors (TFs) analysis, and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) are reliable for incorporating the salt tolerance in rice at the molecular level. Large-scale use of these potent genetic approaches leads to identifying and editing several genes/alleles, and QTL/genes are accountable for holding the genetic mechanism of salinity tolerance in rice. Continuous breeding practices resulted in a huge decline in rice genetic diversity, which is a great worry for global food security. However, molecular breeding tools are the only way to conserve genetic diversity by exploring wild germplasm for desired genes in salt tolerance breeding programs. In this review, we have compiled the logical evidences of successful applications of potent molecular tools for boosting salinity tolerance in rice, their limitations, and future prospects. This well-organized information would assist future researchers in understanding the genetic improvement of salinity tolerance in rice.

Integrated Multi-Omics Perspective to Strengthen the Understanding of Salt Tolerance in Rice

Salt stress is one of the major constraints to rice cultivation worldwide. Thus, the development of salt-tolerant rice cultivars becomes a hotspot of current rice breeding. Achieving this goal depends in part on understanding how rice responds to salt stress and uncovering the molecular mechanism underlying this trait. Over the past decade, great efforts have been made to understand the mechanism of salt tolerance in rice through genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and epigenetics. However, there are few reviews on this aspect. Therefore, we review the research progress of omics related to salt tolerance in rice and discuss how these advances will promote the innovations of salt-tolerant rice breeding. In the future, we expect that the integration of multi-omics salt tolerance data can accelerate the solution of the response mechanism of rice to salt stress, and lay a molecular foundation for precise breeding of salt tolerance.

Development and Characterization of Chromosome Segment Substitution Lines Derived from Oryza rufipogon in the Background of the Oryza sativa indica Restorer Line R974

Dongxiang wild rice (DXWR) (O. rufipogon Griff.), which has the northernmost worldwide distribution of a wild rice species, is a valuable genetic resource with respect to improving stress tolerance in cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.). In the three-line hybrid rice breeding system, restorer lines play important roles in enhancing the tolerance of hybrid rice. However, restorer lines have yet to be used as a genomic background for development of substitution lines carrying DXWR chromosome segments. We developed a set of 84 chromosome segment substitution lines (CSSLs) from a donor parent DXWR × recurrent parent restorer line R974 (Oryza sativa indica) cross. On average, each CSSL carried 6.27 introgressed homozygous segments, with 93.37% total genome coverage. Using these CSSLs, we identified a single QTL, qDYST-1, associated with salt stress tolerance on chromosome 3. Furthermore, five CSSLs showing strong salt stress tolerance were subjected to whole-genome single-nucleotide polymorphism chip analyses, during which we detected a common substitution segment containing qDYST-1 in all five CSSLs, thereby implying the validity and efficacy of qDYST-1. These novel CSSLs could make a significant contribution to detecting valuable DXWR QTLs, and provide important germplasm resources for breeding novel restorer lines for use in hybrid rice breeding systems.

Candidate Genes and Pathways in Rice Co-Responding to Drought and Salt Identified by gcHap Network

Drought and salinity stresses are significant abiotic factors that limit rice yield. Exploring the co-response mechanism to drought and salt stress will be conducive to future rice breeding. A total of 1748 drought and salt co-responsive genes were screened, most of which are enriched in plant hormone signal transduction, protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum, and the MAPK signaling pathways. We performed gene-coding sequence haplotype (gcHap) network analysis on nine important genes out of the total amount, which showed significant differences between the Xian/indica and Geng/japonica population. These genes were combined with related pathways, resulting in an interesting mechanistic draft called the ‘gcHap-network pathway’. Meanwhile, we collected a lot of drought and salt breeding varieties, especially the introgression lines (ILs) with HHZ as the parent, which contained the above-mentioned nine genes. This might imply that these ILs have the potential to improve the tolerance to drought and salt. In this paper, we focus on the relationship of drought and salt co-response gene gcHaps and their related pathways using a novel angle. The haplotype network will be helpful to explore the desired haplotypes that can be implemented in haplotype-based breeding programs.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of Two Sweet Sorghum Genotypes with Different Salt Tolerance Abilities to Reveal the Mechanism of Salt Tolerance

Sweet sorghum is a C4 crop that can be grown for silage forage, fiber, syrup and fuel production. It is generally considered a salt-tolerant plant. However, the salt tolerance ability varies among genotypes, and the mechanism is not well known. To further uncover the salt tolerance mechanism, we performed comparative transcriptome analysis with RNA samples in two sweet sorghum genotypes showing different salt tolerance abilities (salt-tolerant line RIO and salt-sensitive line SN005) upon salt treatment. These response processes mainly focused on secondary metabolism, hormone signaling and stress response. The expression pattern cluster analysis showed that RIO-specific response genes were significantly enriched in the categories related to secondary metabolic pathways. GO enrichment analysis indicated that RIO responded earlier than SN005 in the 2 h after treatment. In addition, we identified more transcription factors (TFs) in RIO than SN005 that were specifically expressed differently in the first 2 h of salt treatment, and the pattern of TF change was obviously different. These results indicate that an early response in secondary metabolism might be essential for salt tolerance in sweet sorghum. In conclusion, we found that an early response, especially in secondary metabolism and hormone signaling, might be essential for salt tolerance in sweet sorghum.