Impact of a Breathing Intervention on Engagement of Abdominal, Thoracic, and Subclavian Musculature during Exercise, a Randomized Trial

Evaluation of the benefits of respirator breathing and vomiting training and dynamic core training on improving respiratory muscle strength

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Respiratory muscle training is a widely used method in clinical diagnosis and medical treatment. Due to the fact that the respiratory muscles are located in the core area that supports the human body. Therefore, understanding how to train the core muscle group in the correct way is of great significance in improving physical fitness and reducing the occurrence of sports injuries.

METHODS

This article reviews the effects of respirator breathing and vomiting training (RBVT) and dynamic core training on respiratory muscle strength and related physiological mechanisms.

RESULTS

Both acute and long-term RBVT can promote respiratory muscle function, thereby reducing or delaying the degree of respiratory muscle fatigue, and helping to accelerate the clearance of lactate after exercise. The intra-abdominal pressure generated by dynamic core resistance training can stimulate the diaphragm, reduce discomfort caused by professional equipment training, improve respiratory muscle function, and enhance athletic performance. Low intensity core training may improve the central nervous system's control of muscle coordination, thus benefiting from increased movement efficiency, while high-intensity core training may increase the strength of core muscle groups, thus benefiting athletes' athletic performance.

CONCLUSION

RBVT is not suitable for training the diaphragm, But dynamic core training can reduce discomfort caused by specialized equipment training. It can be used for rehabilitation, improve respiratory muscle function, and enhance exercise performance. However, the optimal diaphragm pressure generated by the transverse abdominal muscle and internal oblique muscle is a topic worthy of further research.

Muscles and Central Neural Networks Involved in Breathing: State of the Art

Breathing is a systemic act, which involves not only the lungs, but the entire body system. To have a comprehensive clinical picture, it is necessary to have all the patient's data; from this assumption, we can affirm that it is necessary to know all the muscles involved in breathing to understand how to obtain a comprehensive approach for the care and treatment of the patient to improve respiratory capacity. The text reviews the efferent connections of the respiratory centers and cites all the muscles that are involved in the mechanism of breathing and that are controlled and managed by the respiratory centers, starting from the muscular description of the cranial area, the bucco-cervical area, the cervicothoracic area, and the thoracic area. Knowing the function of the respiratory accessory muscles allows us to obtain, in some clinical cases, valuable data that can prove predictive of the diagnostic path of the pathology. This is the first article in the literature, to the authors' knowledge, that attempts to list and include in a single text all the muscles directly or indirectly involved in breathing. The goal of this narrative review article is to remind clinicians and researchers involved in the study of different muscular respiratory responses that we need to analyze and work all the skeletal musculature involved in breathing to better understand what happens in the pathological or physiological phases during breathing. This step will allow us to better individualize the therapeutic and training approach for healthy subjects.

Body Positions and Physical Activity Levels Modulate the Ratio of Abdominal to Thoracic Breathing and Respiratory Rate in Young Individuals

Background/Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted that body positions substantially affected the mortality rate. We hypothesized that body position modulates the contribution of abdominal (AB) and thoracic breathing (TB) to the breathing cycle (BC), as well as respiratory rate (RR). In addition, we hypothesized that physical activity level can increase the contribution of abdominal breathing. Methods: Thus, we used plethysmography respiratory belts to measure changes in abdominal (AB) and thoracic (TB) circumferences, their ratio (AB/TB), and respiratory rate (RR) under resting conditions. Measurements were taken in four body positions-standing (St), sitting (Si), supine (Su), and prone (Pr)-for two groups of young adults (aged 21 ± 2 years) with different physical activity levels (low and high PA). Results: The AB/TB ratios significantly differed between the body positions (Si: 45.5/54.5%, St: 40.5/59.5%, Su: 56.8/43.2%, Pr: 52.2/47.8% (p < 0.001)). AB was significantly the highest in Su and lowest in Si and St (p < 0.001). There was a significant difference in respiratory rate (RR) between the four body positions (p = 0.005). RR in the four body positions was the following: Si: 15.1, St: 15.0, Su: 13.7, and Pr: 14.4. RR was the lowest in Su (13.7), where AB was the highest (56.8%), and RR was the highest in Si (15.1) and St (15.0), where TB was higher compared to Su (p < 0.001). PA significantly affected the various body positions' AB/TB ratio and RR. The high PA group showed a significant difference in the AB/TB ratio between the body positions (p < 0.001). The low PA group showed a significant difference in RR between the body positions (p = 0.025). Conclusions: In young, healthy adults, we found that body position significantly influenced the abdominal/thoracic breathing ratio during the breathing cycle. The supine position showed the highest contribution of abdominal breathing, which correlated with the lowest respiratory rate. Additionally, a higher level of physical activity increased the contribution of abdominal breathing in the Si, Su, and St positions, suggesting a more energy-efficient breathing pattern. These findings suggest the potentials for breathing pattern monitoring and position-based interventions to improve healthcare outcomes and enhance sports performance and recovery.

The Effect of Static Apnea Diving Training on the Physiological Parameters of People with a Sports Orientation and Sedentary Participants: A Pilot Study

Diver training improves physical and mental fitness, which can also benefit other sports. This study investigates the effect of eight weeks of static apnea training on maximum apnea time, and on the physiological parameters of runners, swimmers, and sedentary participants, such as forced vital capacity (FVC), minimum heart rate (HR), and oxygen saturation (SpO2). The study followed 19 participants, including five runners, swimmers, sedentary participants, and four competitive divers for reference values. The minimum value of SpO2, HR, maximum duration of apnea, and FVC were measured. Apnea training occurred four times weekly, consisting of six apneas with 60 s breathing pauses. Apnea duration was gradually increased by 30 s. The measurement started with a 30 s apnea and ended with maximal apnea. There was a change in SpO2 decreased by 6.8%, maximum apnea length increased by 15.8%, HR decreased by 9.1%, and FVC increased by 12.4% for the groups (p < 0.05). There were intra-groups changes, but no significant inter-groups difference was observed. Eight weeks of apnea training improved the maximum duration of apnea, FVC values and reduced the minimum values of SpO2 and HR in all groups. No differences were noted between groups after training. This training may benefit cardiorespiratory parameters in the population.

Neural correlates of breath work, mental imagery of yoga postures, and meditation in yoga practitioners: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Objective

Previous research has shown numerous health benefits of yoga, a multicomponent physical and mental activity. The three important aspects of both traditional and modern yoga are breath work, postures, and meditation. However, the neural mechanisms associated with these three aspects of yoga remain largely unknown. The present study investigated the neural underpinnings associated with each of these three yoga components in long- and short-term yoga practitioners to clarify the neural advantages of yoga experience, aiming to provide a more comprehensive understanding of yoga's health-promoting effects.

Methods

Participants were 40 Chinese women, 20 with a long-term yoga practice and 20 with a short-term yoga practice. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy was conducted while participants performed abdominal breathing, mental imagery of yoga postures, and mindfulness meditation. The oxygenated hemoglobin concentrations activated in the brain during these three tasks were used to assess the neural responses to the different aspects of yoga practice. The self-reported mastery of each yoga posture was used to assess the advantages of practicing yoga postures.

Results

Blood oxygen levels in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during breath work were significantly higher in long-term yoga practitioners than in short-term yoga practitioners. In the mental imagery of yoga postures task, self-reported data showed that long-term yoga practitioners had better mastery than short-term practitioners. Long-term yoga practitioners demonstrated lower activation in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, with lower blood oxygen levels associated with performing this task, than short-term yoga practitioners. In the mindfulness meditation task, blood oxygen levels in the orbitofrontal cortex and the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex were significantly higher in long-term yoga practitioners than in short-term yoga practitioners.

Conclusion

The three core yoga components, namely, yogic breathing, postures, and meditation, showed differences and similarities in the activation levels of the prefrontal cortex. Long-term practice of each component led to the neural benefits of efficient activation in the prefrontal cortex, especially in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex.

Integration of yoga within exercise and sports science as a preventive and management strategy for musculoskeletal injuries/disorders and mental disorders - A review of the literature

OBJECTIVES

Exercise-induced musculoskeletal injuries/disorders and associated mental disorders are prevalent among athletes. The main objective of this review is to analyze the prospects of Yoga practices as a preventive and management strategy for musculoskeletal injuries/disorders and associated mental disorders often encountered in exercise and sports activities.

METHODS

A review of the literature was performed using electronic databases such as MEDLINE/PubMed and google scholar published between January 1991 and December 2021 which yielded 88 research articles. The keywords used were yoga OR exercise AND musculoskeletal injuries OR disorders, yoga OR exercise AND mental disorders, yoga AND sports injuries, yoga AND stress, yoga OR exercise AND oxidative stress, yoga OR exercise AND inflammation, yoga OR exercise AND diet.

RESULTS

The moderate and regular exercises are beneficial to health. However, high intensity and overtraining physical activities lead to immune suppression, oxidative stress, muscle damage/fatigue, coronary risk, psychiatric disorders and so on due to enormous strain on various physiological functions. Yoga seems to undermine these adverse activities through up-regulating the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) and down-regulating the activities of hypothalamohypophysial axis (HPA) which are conducive to healing, recovery, regeneration, reduction in stress, relaxation of mind, better cognitive functions, promotion of mental health, reduction in inflammation and oxidative stress, and so on.

CONCLUSION

Literature suggests that Yoga should be integrated within exercise and sports sciences mainly to prevent & manage musculoskeletal injuries/disorders and associated mental disorders.

Relationship between respiratory muscles ultrasound parameters and running tests performance in adolescent football players. A pilot study

Purpose

Assessing the relationship between ultrasound imaging of respiratory muscles during tidal breathing and running tests (endurance and speed) in adolescent football players.

Methods

Ultrasound parameters of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles (shear modulus, thickness, excursion, and velocity), speed (30-m distance), and endurance parameters (multi-stage 20-m shuttle run test) were measured in 22 male adolescent football players. The relation between ultrasound and running tests were analysed by Spearman's correlation.

Results

Diaphragm shear modulus at the end of tidal inspiration was moderately negatively (R =  - 0.49; p = 0.2) correlated with the speed score at 10 m. The diaphragm and intercostal muscle shear modulus ratio was moderately to strongly negatively correlated with the speed score at 10 m and 30 m (about R =  - 0.48; p = 0.03). Diaphragm excursion was positively correlated with the speed score at 5 m (R = 0.46; p = 0.04) and 10 m (R = 0.52; p = 0.02). Diaphragm velocity was moderately positively correlated with the speed score at 5 m (R = 0.42; p = 0.06) and 30 m (R = 0.42; p = 0.07). Ultrasound parameters were not significantly related to all endurance parameters (R ≤ 0.36; p ≥ 0.11).

Conclusions

Ultrasound parameters of the respiratory muscles are related to speed score in adolescent football players. The current state of knowledge does not allow us to clearly define how important the respiratory muscles' ultrasound parameters can be in predicting some performance parameters in adolescent athletes.

The influence of receiving real-time visual feedback on breathing during treadmill running to exhaustion

Breathing plays a vital role in everyday life, and specifically during exercise it provides working muscles with the oxygen necessary for optimal performance. Respiratory inductance plethysmography (RIP) monitors breathing through elastic belts around the chest and abdomen, with efficient breathing defined by synchronous chest and abdomen movement. This study examined if providing runners with visual feedback through RIP could increase breathing efficiency and thereby time to exhaustion. Thirteen recreational runners (8F, 5M) ran to exhaustion on an inclined treadmill on two days, with visual feedback provided on one randomly chosen day. Phase angle was calculated as a measure of thoraco-abdominal coordination. Time to exhaustion was not significantly increased when visual feedback was provided (p = 1). Phase angle was not significantly predicted by visual feedback (p = 0.667). Six participants improved phase angle when visual feedback was provided, four of whom increased time to exhaustion. Four participants improved phase angle by 9° or more, three of whom increased time to exhaustion. Participants who improved phase angle with visual feedback highlight that improving phase angle could increase time to exhaustion. Greater familiarization with breathing techniques and visual feedback and a different paradigm to induce running fatigue are needed to support future studies of breathing in runners.

Does Wim Hof Method Improve Breathing Economy during Exercise?

(1) Background: Breathing economy during endurance sports plays a major role in performance. Poor breathing economy is mainly characterized by excessive breathing frequency (BF) and low tidal volume (VT) due to shallow breathing. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether a 4 week intervention based on the Wim Hof breathing method (WHBM) would improve breathing economy during exercise in adolescent runners. (2) Methods: 19 adolescent (16.6 ± 1.53 years) middle- and long-distance runners (11 boys and 8 girls) participated in the study. Participants were randomly divided into experimental (n = 11) and control groups (n = 8). The study was set in the transition period between competitive race seasons and both groups had a similar training program in terms of running volume and intensity over the course of the study. The experimental group performed breathing exercises every day (~20 min/day) for 4 weeks. The control group did not perform any kind of breathing exercise. The breathing exercises consisted of three sets of controlled hyperventilation and consecutive maximum breath holds. Before and after the intervention, participants performed incremental cycle ergometer testing sessions consisting of two minute stages at 1, 2, 3, and 4 W·kg−1 with breath-by-breath metabolic analysis. During the testing sessions, BF, VT, and minute ventilation (VE) were assessed and compared. (3) Results: There were no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) in BF, VT, or VE between experimental and control groups before or after the intervention. A nonsignificant small-to-large effect for an increase in VE and BF in both groups following the 4 week intervention period was observed, possibly due to a reduction in training volume and intensity owing to the down period between competitive seasons. (4) Conclusions: The 4 week intervention of WHBM did not appear to alter parameters of breathing economy during a maximal graded exercise test in adolescent runners.

Breath Tools: A Synthesis of Evidence-Based Breathing Strategies to Enhance Human Running

Running is among the most popular sporting hobbies and often chosen specifically for intrinsic psychological benefits. However, up to 40% of runners may experience exercise-induced dyspnoea as a result of cascading physiological phenomena, possibly causing negative psychological states or barriers to participation. Breathing techniques such as slow, deep breathing have proven benefits at rest, but it is unclear if they can be used during exercise to address respiratory limitations or improve performance. While direct experimental evidence is limited, diverse findings from exercise physiology and sports science combined with anecdotal knowledge from Yoga, meditation, and breathwork suggest that many aspects of breathing could be improved via purposeful strategies. Hence, we sought to synthesize these disparate sources to create a new theoretical framework called “Breath Tools” proposing breathing strategies for use during running to improve tolerance, performance, and lower barriers to long-term enjoyment.

Differences between Treadmill and Cycle Ergometer Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing Results in Triathletes and Their Association with Body Composition and Body Mass Index

Cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) is the method of choice to assess aerobic fitness. Previous research was ambiguous as to whether treadmill (TE) and cycle ergometry (CE) results are transferrable or different between testing modalities in triathletes. The aim of this paper was to investigate the differences in HR and VO2 at maximum exertion between TE and CE, at anaerobic threshold (AT) and respiratory compensation point (RCP) and evaluate their association with body fat (BF), fat-free mass (FFM) and body mass index (BMI). In total, 143 adult (n = 18 female), Caucasian triathletes had both Tr and CE CPET performed. The male group was divided into <40 years (n = 80) and >40 years (n = 45). Females were aged between 18 and 46 years. Body composition was measured with bioelectrical impedance before tests. Differences were evaluated using paired t-tests, and associations were evaluated in males using multiple linear regression (MLR). Significant differences were found in VO2 and HR at maximum exertion, at AT and at RCP between CE and TE testing, in both males and females. VO2AT was 38.8 (±4.6) mL/kg/min in TE vs. 32.8 (±5.4) in CE in males and 36.0 (±3.6) vs. 32.1 (±3.8) in females (p < 0.001). HRAT was 149 (±10) bpm in TE vs. 136 (±11) in CE in males and 156 (±7) vs. 146 (±11) in females (p < 0.001). VO2max was 52 (±6) mL/kg/min vs. 49 (±7) in CE in males and 45.3 (±4.9) in Tr vs. 43.9 (±5.2) in females (p < 0.001). HRmax was 183 (±10) bpm in TE vs. 177 (±10) in CE in males and 183 (±9) vs. 179 (±10) in females (p < 0.001). MLR showed that BMI, BF and FFM are significantly associated with differences in HR and VO2 at maximum, AT and RCP in males aged >40. Both tests should be used independently to achieve optimal fitness assessments and further training planning.