Impact of Prevalence Ratios of Chondroitin Sulfate (CS)- 4 and -6 Isomers Derived from Marine Sources in Cell Proliferation and Chondrogenic Differentiation Processes

Structural Elucidation of Glycosaminoglycans in the Tissue of Flounder and Isolation of Chondroitin Sulfate C

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are valuable bioactive polysaccharides with promising biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. In this study, we analyzed GAGs using HPLC-MS/MS from the bone (B), muscle (M), skin (S), and viscera (V) of Scophthalmus maximus (SM), Paralichthysi (P), Limanda ferruginea (LF), Cleisthenes herzensteini (G), Platichthys bicoloratus (PB), Pleuronichthys cornutus (PC), and Cleisthenes herzensteini (CH). Unsaturated disaccharide products were obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis of the GAGs and subjected to compositional analysis of chondroitin sulfate (CS), heparin sulfate (HS), and hyaluronic acid (HA), including the sulfation degree of CS and HS, as well as the content of each GAG. The contents of GAGs in the tissues and the sulfation degree differed significantly among the fish. The bone of S. maximus contained more than 12 μg of CS per mg of dry tissue. Although the fish typically contained high levels of CSA (CS-4S), some fish bone tissue exhibited elevated levels of CSC (CS-6S). The HS content was found to range from 10-150 ug/g, primarily distributed in viscera, with a predominant non-sulfated structure (HS-0S). The structure of HA is well-defined without sulfation modification. These analytical results are independent of biological classification. We provide a high-throughput rapid detection method for tissue samples using HPLC-MS/MS to rapidly screen ideal sources of GAG. On this basis, four kinds of CS were prepared and purified from flounder bone, and their molecular weight was determined to be 23-28 kDa by HPGPC-MALLS, and the disaccharide component unit was dominated by CS-6S, which is a potential substitute for CSC derived from shark cartilage.

Molecular mechanisms and potential applications of chondroitin sulphate in managing post-traumatic osteoarthritis

Post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA), a disorder of the synovium, subchondral bone, and cartilage that affects the entire joint, constitutes approximately 12% of all cases of symptomatic osteoarthritis. This review summarizes the pathogenetic mechanisms that underlie the positive influence of chondroitin sulphates (CSs) on PTOA as means of preventive and therapeutic treatment. Mechanisms of PTOA development involve chondrocytes undergoing various forms of cell death (apoptosis, pyroptosis, necroptosis, ferroptosis and/or necrosis). Chondroitin sulphates are a class of glycosaminoglycans that improve the structure and function of cartilage and subchondral bone, which is associated with their ability to decrease the activation of NF-κB and p38 MAPK, and up-regulate Nrf2. Standardized small fish extract (SSFE) is an example of the drugs that can attenuate NF-κB-mediated systemic inflammation, potentially helping to reduce joint inflammation and cartilage degradation, improve joint function, and alleviate pain and disability in patients with these conditions.

Sulfated and non-sulfated chondroitin affect the composition and metabolism of human colonic microbiota simulated in an in vitro fermentation system

Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is a family of glycosaminoglycans and have a wide range of applications in dietary supplements and pharmaceutical drugs. In this study, we evaluated the effects of several types of CS, differing in their sulfated positions, on the human colonic microbiota and their metabolites. CS (CSA, CSC, and CSE) and non-sulfated chondroitin (CH) were added into an in vitro human colonic microbiota model with fecal samples from 10 healthy individuals. CS addition showed a tendency to increase the relative abundance of Bacteroides, Eubacterium, and Faecalibacterium, and CSC and CSE addition significantly increased the total number of eubacteria in the culture of the Kobe University Human Intestinal Microbiota Model. CSE addition also resulted in a significant increase in short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) levels. Furthermore, addition with CSC and CSE increased the levels of a wide range of metabolites including lysine, ornithine, and Ile-Pro-Pro, which could have beneficial effects on the host. However, significant increases in the total number of eubacteria, relative abundance of Bacteroides, and SCFA levels were also observed after addition with CH, and the trends in the effects of CH addition on metabolite concentrations were identical to those of CSC and CSE addition. These results provide novel insight into the contribution of the colonic microbiota to the beneficial effects of dietary CS.

New Hyaluronic Acid from Plant Origin to Improve Joint Protection—An In Vitro Study

Background: In recent decades, hyaluronic acid (HA) has attracted great attention as a new treatment option for osteoarthritis. Classical therapies are not able to stop the cartilage degeneration process nor do they favor tissue repair. Nowadays, it is accepted that high molecular weight HA can reduce inflammation by promoting tissue regeneration; therefore, the aim of this study was to verify the efficacy of a new high molecular weight HA of plant origin (called GreenIuronic®) in maintaining joint homeostasis and preventing the harmful processes of osteoarthritis. Methods: The bioavailability of GreenIuronic® was investigated in a 3D intestinal barrier model that mimics human oral intake while excluding damage to the intestinal barrier. Furthermore, the chemical significance and biological properties of GreenIuronic® were investigated in conditions that simulate osteoarthritis. Results: Our data demonstrated that GreenIuronic® crosses the intestinal barrier without side effects as it has a chemical–biological profile, which could be responsible for many specific chondrocyte functions. Furthermore, in the osteoarthritis model, GreenIuronic® can modulate the molecular mechanism responsible for preventing and restoring the degradation of cartilage. Conclusion: According to our results, this new form of HA appears to be well absorbed and distributed to chondrocytes, preserving their biological activities. Therefore, the oral administration of GreenIuronic® in humans can be considered a valid strategy to obtain beneficial therapeutic effects during osteoarthritis.

Preparation and characterization of injectable gelatin/alginate/chondroitin sulfate/α-calcium sulfate hemihydrate composite paste for bone repair application

In this study, a group of injectable composite pastes with a novel formulation consisting of two inorganic components: α-calcium sulfate hemihydrate (α-CSH, P/L = 1.8-2.1 g/ml) and calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA, P/L = 0.1 g/ml) nanoparticles; and three biopolymers: gelatin (2, 4 wt. %), alginate (1, 1.5 wt. %), and chondroitin sulfate (0.5 wt. %) were carefully prepared and thoroughly characterized with commensurate characterizations. The composite sample composed of gelatin (2 wt. %), alginate (1.5 wt. %), chondroitin sulfate (0.5 wt. %), and also CDHA nanoparticles and α-CSH with P/L ratios of 0.1 and 2.1 g/ml, respectively, exhibited optimal properties in terms of injectability, anti-washout performance, and rheological characteristics. After 14 days of immersion of the chosen sample in the simulated body fluid medium, a dense layer of apatite was formed on the surface of the composite paste. The cellular in vitro tests, such as 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay (MTT), alkaline phosphatase assay, 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining, and cellular attachment, revealed the desirable response of MG-63 cells to the composite paste. The chondroitin sulfate significantly improved the injectability, anti-washout performance, and cellular response of the samples. Considering the promising features of the composite paste prepared in this research work, it could be considered as an alternative injectable bioactive material for bone repair applications.[Formula: see text].

Photoinduced Gelatin-Methacrylate Scaffolds to Examine the Impact of Extracellular Environment on Trabecular Meshwork Cells

Glaucoma is the leading cause of irreversible blindness in the world, currently impacting 80 million people. Patients suffering from primary open-angle glaucoma experience aqueous humor accumulation within the eye causing an increase in intraocular pressure (IOP). The main cause of this rise in IOP is due to poor outflow of aqueous humor through the trabecular meshwork (TM), a tissue composed of collagen and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) embedded with TM cells. The behavior of TM cells is impacted by their microenvironment, and studies conducted on two-dimensional plastic substrates do not necessarily reflect how TM cells would behave in their native setting. Here, we cultured human TM (hTM) cells on 3D biocompatible hydrogels composed of gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) incorporated with the glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) chondroitin sulfate (CS) and hyaluronic acid (HA). Mechanical properties were quantified by storage moduli and viscosity data. Cellular response was measured by quantifying cellular proliferation and expression of an important extracellular matrix protein, fibronectin. We have shown substrate mechanical properties to impact hTM cell proliferation over 2 weeks. It was found that the incorporation of GAGs impacted cell proliferation and fibronectin expression in hTM cells. This work will help elucidate hTM cell response with changes in their microenvironment.

Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction and Structural Characterization of Chondroitin Sulfate Derived from Jumbo Squid Cartilage

Chondroitin sulfate (ChS) is usually used as an oral nutraceutical supplement, and has been popular in Asia, Europe, and United States for many years. In this study, a potential and sustainable source of ChS from jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) cartilage was explored; ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) was used to extract ChS from jumbo squid cartilage. The result of mass transfer coefficients based on Fick's law showed that UAE had higher mass transfer efficacy. The response surface methodology (RSM) combined with Box-Behnken design (BBD) was employed to evaluate the effects of the extraction parameters. The optimal conditions were extraction temperature of 52 °C, extraction time of 46 min, and NaOH concentration of 4.15%. The crude extract was precipitated by 50% ethanol, which obtained a purified ChS with 23.7% yield and 82.3% purity. The purified ChS measured by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) had a carbon to sulfur molar ratio of approximately 14:1. The FTIR, ¹H, and ¹³C NMR confirmed jumbo squid ChS were present in the form of chondroitin-4-sulfate and chondroitin-6-sulfate, with a 4S/6S ratio of 1.62. The results of this study provide an efficient process for production and purification of ChS, and are significant for the development and utilization of ChS from jumbo squid cartilage in the nutrient food or pharmaceutical industries.

Drug Screening Implicates Chondroitin Sulfate as a Potential Longevity Pill

Discovering compounds that promote health during aging ("geroprotectors") is key to the retardation of age-related pathologies and the prevention of chronic age-related diseases. In in-silico and model organisms' lifespan screens, chondroitin sulfate has emerged as a geroprotective compound. Chondroitin sulfate is a glycosaminoglycan attached to extracellular matrix proteins and is naturally produced by our body. Oral supplementation of chondroitin sulfate shows a high tolerance in humans, preferable pharmacokinetics, a positive correlation with healthy human longevity, and efficacy in deceleration of age-related diseases in randomized clinical trials. We have recently shown that chondroitin sulfate supplementation increases the lifespan of C. elegans. Thus, chondroitin sulfate holds the potential to become a geroprotective strategy to promote health during human aging. This review discusses the two major potential mechanisms of action, extracellular matrix homeostasis and inhibition of inflammation, that counteract age-related pathologies upon chondroitin sulfate supplementation.

Enhanced proliferation and angiogenic phenotype of endothelial cells via negatively-charged alginate and chondroitin sulfate microsphere hydrogels

Sodium alginate-based hydrogel was the one of the most used polymers for cell delivery. However, the adsorption of extracellular matrix and proteins was inhibited due to the formation of a hydrated surface layer of these hydrogels. In this study, a novel cell delivery system, negatively-charged alginate and chondroitin sulfate microsphere hydrogel (nCACSMH), was fabricated with excellent permeability and biocompatibility in the action of a high voltage direct-current electric field. Negative charge was introduced to the surface of nCACSMH to obtain the expanded network and enhanced permeability. Additionally, the increasing content of chondroitin sulfate in nCACSMH could give rise to the charge density and its asymmetric structure, thus the uneven, plicate and expanded surface of nCACSMH which was favorable to cell proliferation was developed. Moreover, chondroitin sulfate was released with the degradation of nCACSMH, which played a crucial role in maintaining the normal physiological functions of cells. Thus the proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) was further accelerated and the angiogenesis related genes expression in endothelial cells was continuously and dramatically up-regulated. After 4 d, the proliferation and viability of HUVECs were significantly improved, the cells were distributed evenly in nCACSMH. The novel nCACSMH has the potential to be used as cell delivery, three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures for cell therapy, 3D bioprinting, high-throughput screening for drugs, and disease model for regeneration and constructing of tissue engineering.

Amentadione from the Alga Cystoseira usneoides as a Novel Osteoarthritis Protective Agent in an Ex Vivo Co-Culture OA Model

Osteoarthritis (OA) remains a prevalent chronic disease without effective prevention and treatment. Amentadione (YP), a meroditerpenoid purified from the alga Cystoseira usneoides, has demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity. Here, we investigated the YP anti-osteoarthritic potential, by using a novel OA preclinical drug development pipeline designed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and anti-mineralizing activities of potential OA-protective compounds. The workflow was based on in vitro primary cell cultures followed by human cartilage explants assays and a new OA co-culture model, combining cartilage explants with synoviocytes under interleukin-1β (IL-1β) or hydroxyapatite (HAP) stimulation. A combination of gene expression analysis and measurement of inflammatory mediators showed that the proposed model mimicked early disease stages, while YP counteracted inflammatory responses by downregulation of COX-2 and IL-6, improved cartilage homeostasis by downregulation of MMP3 and the chondrocytes hypertrophic differentiation factors Col10 and Runx2. Importantly, YP downregulated NF-κB gene expression and decreased phosphorylated IkBα/total IkBα ratio in chondrocytes. These results indicate the co-culture as a relevant pre-clinical OA model, and strongly suggest YP as a cartilage protective factor by inhibiting inflammatory, mineralizing, catabolic and differentiation processes during OA development, through inhibition of NF-κB signaling pathways, with high therapeutic potential.

Extraction and Characterization of Collagen from Elasmobranch Byproducts for Potential Biomaterial Use

With the worldwide increase of fisheries, fish wastes have had a similar increase, alternatively they can be seen as a source of novel substances for the improvement of society's wellbeing. Elasmobranchs are a subclass fished in high amounts, with some species being mainly bycatch. They possess an endoskeleton composed mainly by cartilage, from which chondroitin sulfate is currently obtained. Their use as a viable source for extraction of type II collagen has been hypothesized with the envisaging of a biomedical application, namely in biomaterials production. In the present work, raw cartilage from shark (Prionace glauca) and ray (Zeachara chilensis and Bathyraja brachyurops) was obtained from a fish processing company and submitted to acidic and enzymatic extractions, to produce acid-soluble collagen (ASC) and pepsin-soluble collagen (PSC). From all the extractions, P. glauca PSC had the highest yield (3.5%), followed by ray ASC (0.92%), ray PSC (0.50%), and P. glauca ASC (0.15%). All the extracts showed similar properties, with the SDS-PAGE profiles being compatible with the presence of both type I and type II collagens. Moreover, the collagen extracts exhibited the competence to maintain their conformation at human basal temperature, presenting a denaturation temperature higher than 37 °C. Hydrogels were produced using P. glauca PSC combined with shark chondroitin sulfate, with the objective of mimicking the human cartilage extracellular matrix. These hydrogels were cohesive and structurally-stable at 37 °C, with rheological measurements exhibiting a conformation of an elastic solid when submitted to shear strain with a frequency up to 4 Hz. This work revealed a sustainable strategy for the valorization of fisheries' by-products, within the concept of a circular economy, consisting of the use of P. glauca, Z. chilensis, and B. brachyurops cartilage for the extraction of collagen, which would be further employed in the development of hydrogels as a proof of concept of its biotechnological potential, ultimately envisaging its use in marine biomaterials to regenerate damaged cartilaginous tissues.

Optimal Recovery of Valuable Biomaterials, Chondroitin Sulfate and Bioapatites, from Central Skeleton Wastes of Blue Shark

The industrial filleting of blue shark (Prionace glauca) led to the generation of a large number of central skeletons of low interest to fishmeal plants handling such wastes. In this context, the present study describes the optimization of the hydrolysis process (pH 8.35, T 58 °C, 1% (v/w) of alcalase and t = 4 h) to produce chondroitin sulfate (CS) together with the recovery of bioapatites. Then, that hydrolysate was chemically treated with an optimal alkaline-hydroalcoholic-saline solution (0.48 M of NaOH, 1.07 volumes of EtOH and 2.5 g/L of NaCl) and finally purified by ultrafiltration-diafiltration (30 kDa) to obtain glycosaminoglycan with a purity of 97% and a productive yield of 2.8% (w/w of skeleton). The size of the biopolymer (CS) was of 58 kDa with prevalence of 6S-GalNAc sulfation (4S/6S ratio of 0.25), 12% of GlcA 2S-GalNAc 6S and 6% of non-sulfated disaccharides. Crude bioapatites were purified by pyrolysis and FT-Raman and XRD techniques confirm the presence of hydroxyapatite [Ca₅(PO₄)₃(OH)], with a molar mass of 502.3 g/mol, embedded in the organic matrix of the skeleton. The mineralized tissues of blue shark are promising marine sources for the extraction of high value biomaterials with clinical application in bone and tissue regeneration and are still completely unexplored.