A survey of marine natural compounds and their derivatives with anti-cancer activity reported in 2010

Marine Compounds, Mitochondria, and Malignancy: A Therapeutic Nexus

The marine environment is important yet generally underexplored. It contains new sources of functional constituents that can affect various pathways in food processing, storage, and fortification. Bioactive secondary metabolites produced by marine microorganisms may have significant potential applications for humans. Various components isolated from disparate marine microorganisms, including fungi, microalgae, bacteria, and myxomycetes, showed considerable biological effects, such as anticancer, antioxidant, antiviral, antibacterial, and neuroprotective activities. Growing studies are revealing that potential anticancer effects of marine agents could be achieved through the modulation of several organelles. Mitochondria are known organelles that influence growth, differentiation, and death of cells via influencing the biosynthetic, bioenergetic, and various signaling pathways related to oxidative stress and cellular metabolism. Consequently, mitochondria play an essential role in tumorigenesis and cancer treatments by adapting to alterations in environmental and cellular conditions. The growing interest in marine-derived anticancer agents, combined with the development and progression of novel technology in the extraction and cultures of marine life, led to revelations of new compounds with meaningful pharmacological applications. This is the first critical review on marine-derived anticancer agents that have the potential for targeting mitochondrial function during tumorigenesis. This study aims to provide promising strategies in cancer prevention and treatment.

Preclinical Drug Discovery in Colorectal Cancer: A Focus on Natural Compounds

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is considered one of the most predominant and deadly cancer globally. Nowadays, the main clinical management for this cancer includes chemotherapy and surgery; however, these treatments result in the occurrence of drug resistance and severe side effects, and thus it is a crucial requirement to discover an alternative and potential therapy for CRC treatment. Numerous therapeutic cancers were initially recognized from natural metabolites utilized in traditional medicine, and several recent types of research have shown that many natural products own potential effects against CRC and may assist the action of chemotherapy for the treatment of CRC. It has been indicated that most patients are well tolerated by natural compounds without showing any toxicity signs even at high doses. Conventional chemotherapeutics interaction with natural medicinal compounds presents a new feature in cancer exploration and treatment. Most of the natural compounds overwhelm malignant cell propagation by apoptosis initiation of CRC cells and arresting of the cell cycle (especially at G, S, and G2/M phase) that result in inhibition of tumor growth.

OBJECTIVE

This mini-review aimed to focus on natural compounds (alkaloids, flavonoids, polysaccharides, polyphenols, terpenoids, lactones, quinones, etc.) that were identified to have anti- CRC activity in vitro on CRC cell lines and/or in vivo experiments on animal models.

CONCLUSION

Most of the studied active natural compounds possess anti-CRC activity via different mechanisms and pathways in vitro and in vivo that might be used as assistance by clinicians to support chemotherapy therapeutic strategy and treatment doses for cancer patients.

Dermacozine N, the First Natural Linear Pentacyclic Oxazinophenazine with UV-Vis Absorption Maxima in the Near Infrared Region, along with Dermacozines O and P Isolated from the Mariana Trench Sediment Strain Dermacoccus abyssi MT 1.1T

Three dermacozines, dermacozines N-P (1-3), were isolated from the piezotolerant Actinomycete strain Dermacoccus abyssi MT 1.1T, which was isolated from a Mariana Trench sediment in 2006. Herein, we report the elucidation of their structures using a combination of 1D/2D NMR, LC-HRESI-MSn, UV-Visible, and IR spectroscopy. Further confirmation of the structures was achieved through the analysis of data from density functional theory (DFT)-UV-Visible spectral calculations and statistical analysis such as two tailed t-test, linear regression-, and multiple linear regression analysis applied to either solely experimental or to experimental and calculated 13C-NMR chemical shift data. Dermacozine N (1) bears a novel linear pentacyclic phenoxazine framework that has never been reported as a natural product. Dermacozine O (2) is a constitutional isomer of the known dermacozine F while dermacozine P (3) is 8-benzoyl-6-carbamoylphenazine-1-carboxylic acid. Dermacozine N (1) is unique among phenoxazines due to its near infrared (NIR) absorption maxima, which would make this compound an excellent candidate for research in biosensing chemistry, photodynamic therapy (PDT), opto-electronic applications, and metabolic mapping at the cellular level. Furthermore, dermacozine N (1) possesses weak cytotoxic activity against melanoma (A2058) and hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2) with IC50 values of 51 and 38 μM, respectively.

Therapeutic effects of HESA-A (a herbal-marine compound) in acute organophosphorus pesticide poisoning

OBJECTIVE

Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) are common causes of poisonings. Atropine and oximes are pharmacological antidotes of OPs. However, because of their adverse effects and insufficient performance, several other compounds have been evaluated as adjuvant therapy. HESA-A is a herbal-marine drug that contains material from Carum carvi (Persian cumin), Penaeus latisculatus (king prawn), and Apium graveolens (celery) with anti-inflammatory and antioxidants properties, which has shown useful effects as adjuvant therapy on some diseases. We have evaluated the effect of HESA-A on 69 moderate to severe acute OPs poisoned patients (44 HESA-A treated and 25 controls) as an adjuvant drug.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two randomized age and sex matched groups of OPs poisoned patients were treated in Medical Toxicology Center of Imam Reza hospital, Mashhad, by conventional therapy with or without HESA-A (50 mg/kg/day orally). The evaluation criteria were total administrated doses of atropine and pralidoxime, intensive care unit (ICU) admission rate, mechanical respiration need, number of hospitalization days and mortality.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences between the morbidity and mortality rate criteria of the two groups; moreover, we did not observe significant adverse effects for HESA-A.

CONCLUSION

HESA-A did not reduce morbidity and mortality of OPs poisoning and did not induce any major side effect in the patients.

Novel dermacozine-1-carboxamides as promising anticancer agents with tubulin polymerization inhibitory activity

In the present study, novel dermacozine-1-carboxamides (8a–8n) were synthesized and screened for their in vitro cytotoxic activity against three different cancer cell lines: MCF-7 (breast cancer), A-549 (lung cancer) and DU145 (prostate cancer). All the compounds showed more efficiency against the DU145 cell line than against the MCF-7 and A-549 cell lines. Furthermore, 8a (CTC₅₀: 7.02 μM) and 8l (CTC₅₀: 6.32 μM) have been found to be more effective against the DU145 cells as they arrest the cell cycle at the G2/M phase by interfering with tubulin polymerization; these results indicate that these compounds act as potential anti-cancer agents by inhibiting tubulin polymerization.

In the present study, novel dermacozine-1-carboxamides (8a–8n) were synthesized and screened for their in vitro cytotoxic activity against three different cancer cell lines: MCF-7 (breast cancer), A-549 (lung cancer) and DU145 (prostate cancer).

Synergistic AML Cell Death Induction by Marine Cytotoxin (+)-1(R), 6(S), 1'(R), 6'(S), 11(R), 17(S)-Fistularin-3 and Bcl-2 Inhibitor Venetoclax

Treatment of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients is still hindered by resistance and relapse, resulting in an overall poor survival rate. Recently, combining specific B-cell lymphoma (Bcl)-2 inhibitors with compounds downregulating myeloid cell leukemia (Mcl)-1 has been proposed as a new effective strategy to eradicate resistant AML cells. We show here that 1(R), 6(S), 1’(R), 6’(S), 11(R), 17(S)-fistularin-3, a bromotyrosine compound of the fistularin family, isolated from the marine sponge Suberea clavata, synergizes with Bcl-2 inhibitor ABT-199 to efficiently kill Mcl-1/Bcl-2-positive AML cell lines, associated with Mcl-1 downregulation and endoplasmic reticulum stress induction. The absolute configuration of carbons 11 and 17 of the fistularin-3 stereoisomer was fully resolved in this study for the first time, showing that the fistularin we isolated from the marine sponge Subarea clavata is in fact the (+)-11(R), 17(S)-fistularin-3 stereoisomer keeping the known configuration 1(R), 6(S), 1’(R), and 6’(S) for the verongidoic acid part. Docking studies and in vitro assays confirm the potential of this family of molecules to inhibit DNA methyltransferase 1 activity.

Effects of systemic administration of HESA-A on the expression of cyclin D1 and EGFR and E-cadherin in the induced tongue dysplasia in rats

Background. HESA-A has herbal and marine bases, containing minerals and rare elements such as Zr, Cr, Ga, Mn, Mg, Ca, Sr, Cu, Ti, etc. Its mechanism of action includes antioxidant, antiinflammatory and adjustment of the immune system. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of HESA-A systemic drug on expression of cyclin D1, EGFR and E-cadherin in induced tongue dysplasia in rats.

Methods. In this experimental study, the effects of the systemic drug HESA-A on the expression of cyclin D1, EGFR, and E-cadherin molecular markers were examined in induced tongue dysplasia in rats.

Results. The incidence rate of cyclin D1 in groups receiving HESA-A was lower than the group that did not receive the drug (77.78% in the 0‒5% range versus 77.78% in the 5‒50% range). In the case of expression of E-cadherin in group D, which did not receive HESA-A, a decrease was observed in the expression of this cell adhesion marker as compared to the other two groups. The incidence of E-cadherin was dependent on HESA-A dose, while with 500 mg/kg it was higher than other groups (>75% in 55.55% versus >75% in 11.11%). Concerning the incidence of EGFR in all the three groups most cases were grade 0.

Conclusion. The results of the present research indicated that considering changes in the expression of cyclin D1 and E-cadherin markers in groups treated with HESA-A, HESA-A® has preventive effects on development of cancer in dysplastic lesions through regulation of expression of these molecules.

Cytotoxic Compounds Derived from Marine Sponges. A Review (2010-2012)

Abstract: This extensive review covers research published between 2010 and 2012 regarding new compounds derived from marine sponges, including 62 species from 60 genera belonging to 33 families and 13 orders of the Demospongia class (Porifera). The emphasis is on the cytotoxic activity that bioactive metabolites from sponges may have on cancer cell lines. At least 197 novel chemical structures from 337 compounds isolated have been found to support this work. Details on the source and taxonomy of the sponges, their geographical occurrence, and a range of chemical structures are presented. The compounds discovered from the reviewed marine sponges fall into mainly four chemical classes: terpenoids (41.9%), alkaloids (26.2%), macrolides (8.9%) and peptides (6.3%) which, along with polyketides, sterols, and others show a range of biological activities. The key sponge orders studied in the reviewed research were Dictyoceratida, Haplosclerida, Tetractinellida, Poecilosclerida, and Agelasida. Petrosia, Haliclona (Haplosclerida), Rhabdastrella (Tetractinellida), Coscinoderma and Hyppospongia (Dictyioceratida), were found to be the most promising genera because of their capacity for producing new bioactive compounds. Several of the new compounds and their synthetic analogues have shown in vitro cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic activities against various tumor/cancer cell lines, and some of them will undergo further in vivo evaluation.

Non-canonical programmed cell death mechanisms triggered by natural compounds

Natural compounds are the fundament of pharmacological treatments and more than 50% of all anticancer drugs are of natural origins or at least derived from scaffolds present in Nature. Over the last 25 years, molecular mechanisms triggered by natural anticancer compounds were investigated. Emerging research showed that molecules of natural origins are useful for both preventive and therapeutic purposes by targeting essential hallmarks and enabling characteristics described by Hanahan and Weinberg. Moreover, natural compounds were able to change the differentiation status of selected cell types. One of the earliest response of cells treated by pharmacologically active compounds is the change of its morphology leading to ultra-structural perturbations: changes in membrane composition, cytoskeleton integrity, alterations of the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and of the nucleus lead to formation of morphological alterations that are a characteristic of both compound and cancer type preceding cell death. Apoptosis and autophagy were traditionally considered as the most prominent cell death or cell death-related mechanisms. By now multiple other cell death modalities were described and most likely involved in response to chemotherapeutic treatment. It can be hypothesized that especially necrosis-related phenotypes triggered by various treatments or evolving from apoptotic or autophagic mechanisms, provide a more efficient therapeutic outcome depending on cancer type and genetic phenotype of the patient. In fact, the recent discovery of multiple regulated forms of necrosis and the initial elucidation of the corresponding cell signaling pathways appear nowadays as important tools to clarify the immunogenic potential of non-canonical forms of cell death induction.

Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (STAT) Regulatory Networks in Marine Organisms: From Physiological Observations towards Marine Drug Discovery

Part of our ocean's richness comes from its extensive history of supporting life, resulting in a highly diverse ecological system. To date, over 250,000 species of marine organisms have been identified, but it is speculated that the actual number of marine species exceeds one million, including several hundreds of millions of species of marine microorganisms. Past studies suggest that approximately 70% of all deep-sea microorganisms, gorgonians, and sea sponges produce secondary metabolites with anti-cancer activities. Recently, novel FDA-approved drugs derived from marine sponges have been shown to reduce metastatic breast cancer, malignant lymphoma, and Hodgkin's disease. Despite the fact that many marine natural products have been shown to possess a good inhibition potential against most of the cancer-related cell signaling pathways, only a few marine natural products have been shown to target JAK/STAT signaling. In the present paper, we describe the JAK/STAT signaling pathways found in marine organisms, before elaborating on the recent advances in the field of STAT inhibition by marine natural products and the potential application in anti-cancer drug discovery.

A Survey of Marine Natural Compounds and Their Derivatives with Anti-cancer Activity Reported in 2012

Although considerable effort and progress has been made in the search for new anticancer drugs and treatments in the last several decades, cancer remains a major public health problem and one of the major causes of death worldwide. Many sources, including plants, animals, and minerals, are of interest in cancer research because of the possibility of identifying novel molecular therapeutics. Moreover, structure-activity-relationship (SAR) investigations have become a common way to develop naturally derived or semi-synthetic molecular analogues with improved efficacy and decreased toxicity. In 2012, approximately 138 molecules from marine sources, including isolated compounds and their associated analogues, were shown to be promising anticancer drugs. Among these, 62% are novel compounds. In this report, we review the marine compounds identified in 2012 that may serve as novel anticancer drugs.

Coral-derived compound WA-25 inhibits angiogenesis by attenuating the VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling pathway

Background: WA-25 (dihydroaustrasulfone alcohol, a synthetic derivative of marine compound WE-2) suppresses atherosclerosis in rats by reducing neointima formation. Because angiogenesis plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, the present study investigated the angiogenic function and mechanism of WA-25. Methods: The angiogenic effect of WA-25 was evaluated using a rat aortic ring assay and transgenic zebrafish models were established using transgenic Tg(fli-1:EGFP)^y1 and Tg(kdrl:mCherry^ci5-fli1a:negfp^y7) zebrafish embryos. In addition, the effect of WA-25 on distinct angiogenic processes, including matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression, endothelial cell proliferation and migration, as well as tube formation, was studied using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The effect of WA-25 on the endothelial vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling pathway was elucidated using qRT-PCR, immunoblot analysis, immunofluorescence and flow cytometric analyses. Results: The application of WA-25 perturbed the development of intersegmental vessels in transgenic zebrafish. Moreover, WA-25 potently suppressed microvessel sprouting in organotypic rat aortic rings. Among cultured endothelial cells, WA-25 significantly and dose-dependently inhibited MMP-2/MMP-9 expression, proliferation, migration and tube formation in HUVECs. Mechanistic studies revealed that WA-25 significantly reduced the VEGF release by reducing VEGF expression at the mRNA and protein levels. In addition, WA-25 reduced surface VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2/Flk-1) expression by repressing the VEGFR2 mRNA level. Finally, an exogenous VEGF supply partially rescued the WA-25-induced angiogenesis blockage in vitro and in vivo. Conclusions: WA-25 is a potent angiogenesis inhibitor that acts through the down-regulation of VEGF and VEGFR2 in endothelial cells. GeneralSignificance: WA-25 may constitute a novel anti-angiogenic drug that acts by targeting endothelial VEGF/VEGFR2 signaling.

Anticancer agents from marine sponges

Marine sponges are currently one of the richest sources of anticancer active compounds found in the marine ecosystems. More than 5300 different known metabolites are from sponges and their associated microorganisms. To survive in the complicated marine environment, most of the sponge species have evolved chemical means to defend against predation. Such chemical adaptation produces many biologically active secondary metabolites including anticancer agents. This review highlights novel secondary metabolites in sponges which inhibited diverse cancer species in the recent 5 years. These natural products of marine sponges are categorized based on various chemical characteristics.

Anti-inflammatory and anticancer drugs from nature

Over the centuries, plant extracts have been used to treat various diseases. Until now, natural products have played an important role in anticancer therapy as there are more than 500 compounds from terrestrial and marine plants or microorganisms, which have antioxidant, antiproliferative, or antiangiogenic properties and are therefore able to reduce tumor growth. The recent discovery of new natural products has been accelerated by novel technologies (high throughput screening of natural products in plants, animals, marine organisms, and microorganisms). Vincristine, irinotecan, etoposide, and paclitaxel are examples of compounds derived from plants that are used in cancer treatment. Similarly, actinomycin D, mitomycin C, bleomycin, doxorubicin, and L-asparaginase are drugs derived from microorganisms. In this review, we describe the molecular mechanisms of natural compounds with anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities.

Marine invertebrate natural products for anti-inflammatory and chronic diseases

The marine environment represents a relatively available source of functional ingredients that can be applied to various aspects of food processing, storage, and fortification. Moreover, numerous marine invertebrates based compounds have biological activities and also interfere with the pathogenesis of diseases. Isolated compounds from marine invertebrates have been shown to pharmacological activities and are helpful for the invention and discovery of bioactive compounds, primarily for deadly diseases like cancer, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), osteoporosis, and so forth. Extensive research within the last decade has revealed that most chronic illnesses such as cancer, neurological diseases, diabetes, and autoimmune diseases exhibit dysregulation of multiple cell signaling pathways that have been linked to inflammation. On the basis of their bioactive properties, this review focuses on the potential use of marine invertebrate derived compounds on anti-inflammatory and some chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, diabetes, HIV, and cancer.

The plant alkaloid and anti-leukemia drug homoharringtonine sensitizes resistant human colorectal carcinoma cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis via multiple mechanisms

TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a pro-apoptotic ligand from the TNF-alpha family that is under consideration, along with agonistic anti-TRAIL receptor antibodies, as a potential anti-tumor agent. However, most primary human tumors are resistant to monotherapy with TRAIL apoptogens, and thus the potential applicability of TRAIL in anti-tumor therapy ultimately depends on its rational combination with drugs targeting these resistances. In our high-throughput screening for novel agents/drugs that could sensitize TRAIL-resistant colorectal cancer cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis, we found homoharringtonine (HHT), a cephalotaxus alkaloid and tested anti-leukemia drug, to be a very effective, low nanomolar enhancer of TRAIL-mediated apoptosis/growth suppression of these resistant cells. Co-treatment of TRAIL-resistant RKO or HT-29 cells with HHT and TRAIL led to the effective induction of apoptosis and the complete elimination of the treated cells. HHT suppressed the expression of the anti-apoptotic proteins Mcl-1 and cFLIP and enhanced the TRAIL-triggered activation of JNK and p38 kinases. The shRNA-mediated down-regulation of cFLIP or Mcl-1 in HT-29 or RKO cells variably enhanced their TRAIL-induced apoptosis but it did not markedly sensitize them to TRAIL-mediated growth suppression. However, with the notable exception of RKO/sh cFLIP cells, the downregulation of cFLIP or Mcl-1 significantly lowered the effective concentration of HHT in HHT + TRAIL co-treatment. Combined HHT + TRAIL therapy also led to the strong suppression of HT-29 tumors implanted into immunodeficient mice. Thus, HHT represents a very efficient enhancer of TRAIL-induced apoptosis with potential application in TRAIL-based, anti-cancer combination therapy.

Berbamine inhibits the growth of liver cancer cells and cancer-initiating cells by targeting Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II

Liver cancer is the third leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide but no effective treatment toward liver cancer is available so far. Therefore, there is an unmet medical need to identify novel therapies to efficiently treat liver cancer and improve the prognosis of this disease. Here, we report that berbamine and one of its derivatives, bbd24, potently suppressed liver cancer cell proliferation and induced cancer cell death by targeting Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CAMKII). Furthermore, berbamine inhibited the in vivo tumorigenicity of liver cancer cells in NOD/SCID mice and downregulated the self-renewal abilities of liver cancer-initiating cells. Chemical inhibition or short hairpin RNA-mediated knockdown of CAMKII recapitulated the effects of berbamine, whereas overexpression of CAMKII promoted cancer cell proliferation and increased the resistance of liver cancer cells to berbamine treatments. Western blot analyses of human liver cancer specimens showed that CAMKII was hyperphosphorylated in liver tumors compared with the paired peritumor tissues, which supports a role of CAMKII in promoting human liver cancer progression and the potential clinical use of berbamine for liver cancer therapies. Our data suggest that berbamine and its derivatives are promising agents to suppress liver cancer growth by targeting CAMKII. Mol Cancer Ther; 12(10); 2067-77. ©2013 AACR.

Marine natural products

This review covers the literature published in 2011 for marine natural products, with 870 citations (558 for the period January to December 2011) referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, cnidarians, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates, echinoderms, mangroves and other intertidal plants and microorganisms. The emphasis is on new compounds (1152 for 2011), together with the relevant biological activities, source organisms and country of origin. Biosynthetic studies, first syntheses, and syntheses that lead to the revision of structures or stereochemistries, have been included.

A survey of marine natural compounds and their derivatives with anti-cancer activity reported in 2011

Cancer continues to be a major public health problem despite the efforts that have been made in the search for novel drugs and treatments. The current sources sought for the discovery of new molecules are plants, animals and minerals. During the past decade, the search for anticancer agents of marine origin to fight chemo-resistance has increased greatly. Each year, several novel anticancer molecules are isolated from marine organisms and represent a renewed hope for cancer therapy. The study of structure-function relationships has allowed synthesis of analogues with increased efficacy and less toxicity. In this report, we aim to review 42 compounds of marine origin and their derivatives that were published in 2011 as promising anticancer compounds.

Iodinin (1,6-dihydroxyphenazine 5,10-dioxide) from Streptosporangium sp. induces apoptosis selectively in myeloid leukemia cell lines and patient cells

Despite recent improvement in therapy, acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is still associated with high lethality. In the presented study, we analyzed the bioactive compound iodinin (1,6-dihydroxyphenazine 5,10-dioxide) from a marine actinomycetes bacterium for the ability to induce cell death in a range of cell types. Iodinin showed selective toxicity to AML and acute promyelocytic (APL) leukemia cells, with EC50 values for cell death up to 40 times lower for leukemia cells when compared with normal cells. Iodinin also successfully induced cell death in patient-derived leukemia cells or cell lines with features associated with poor prognostic such as FLT3 internal tandem duplications or mutated/deficient p53. The cell death had typical apoptotic morphology, and activation of apoptotic signaling proteins like caspase-3. Molecular modeling suggested that iodinin could intercalate between bases in the DNA in a way similar to the anti-cancer drug daunorubicin (DNR), causing DNA-strand breaks. Iodinin induced apoptosis in several therapy-resistant AML-patient blasts, but to a low degree in peripheral blood leukocytes, and in contrast to DNR, not in rat cardiomyoblasts. The low activity towards normal cell types that are usually affected by anti-leukemia therapy suggests that iodinin and related compounds represent promising structures in the development of anti-cancer therapy.

Alkaloids from Pachysandra terminalis inhibit breast cancer invasion and have potential for development as antimetastasis therapeutic agents

The aim of the present study was to identify potentially useful natural compounds for the development of novel therapeutic agents to inhibit metastasis. A phytochemical investigation of Pachysandra terminalis resulted in the isolation of seven new pregnane alkaloids, terminamines A-G (1-7), and seven known alkaloids (8-14). The structures of 1-7 were elucidated by 1D- and 2D-NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometric methods. Compounds 1-5 and 8-14 inhibited the migration of MB-MDA-231 breast cancer cells induced by the chemokine epithelial growth factor. In addition, compound 1 inhibited phosphorylation of integrin β(1), which plays an important role in MB-MDA-231 cell adhesion and metastasis.