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Lopez-Larrea N, Gallastegui A, Lezama L, Criado-Gonzalez M, Casado N, Mecerreyes D. Fast Visible-Light 3D Printing of Conductive PEDOT:PSS Hydrogels. Macromol Rapid Commun 2024; 45:e2300229. [PMID: 37357826 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202300229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Functional inks for light-based 3D printing are actively being searched for being able to exploit all the potentialities of additive manufacturing. Herein, a fast visible-light photopolymerization process is showed of conductive PEDOT:PSS hydrogels. For this purpose, a new Type II photoinitiator system (PIS) based on riboflavin (Rf), triethanolamine (TEA), and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) is investigated for the visible light photopolymerization of acrylic monomers. PEDOT:PSS has a dual role by accelerating the photoinitiation process and providing conductivity to the obtained hydrogels. Using this PIS, full monomer conversion is achieved in less than 2 min using visible light. First, the PIS mechanism is studied, proposing that electron transfer between the triplet excited state of the dye (3 Rf*) and the amine (TEA) is catalyzed by PEDOT:PSS. Second, a series of poly(2-hydroxyethyl acrylate)/PEDOT:PSS hydrogels with different compositions are obtained by photopolymerization. The presence of PEDOT:PSS negatively influences the swelling properties of hydrogels, but significantly increases its mechanical modulus and electrical properties. The new PIS is also tested for 3D printing in a commercially available Digital Light Processing (DLP) 3D printer (405 nm wavelength), obtaining high resolution and 500 µm hole size conductive scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naroa Lopez-Larrea
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa, 20018, Spain
| | - Antonela Gallastegui
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa, 20018, Spain
| | - Luis Lezama
- Departamento de Química Orgánica e Inorgánica, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Barrio Sarriena s/n, Leioa, Bizkaia, 48940, Spain
| | - Miryam Criado-Gonzalez
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa, 20018, Spain
| | - Nerea Casado
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa, 20018, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, Bilbao, 48009, Spain
| | - David Mecerreyes
- POLYMAT, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Avenida Tolosa 72, Donostia-San Sebastian, Guipuzcoa, 20018, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, Bilbao, 48009, Spain
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2
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Wiesner T, Neshchadin D, Glotz G, Gfader Z, Schrader E, Christen S, Fischer RC, Kelterer AM, Gescheidt G, Grützmacher H, Haas M. Symmetrical and Mixed Tris(acyl)phosphines: Synthesis, Oxidation and Photochemistry. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202302535. [PMID: 37701996 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202302535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we present a convenient synthesis for symmetrical and mixed substituted tris(acyl)phosphines (TAPs) starting from red phosphorus. All TAPs exhibit a phosphaalkene-acylphosphine equilibrium, which was investigated in detail by variable-temperature (VT) NMR spectroscopy supported by density-functional theory (DFT) calculations. Depending on the substituents, two phosphaalkene derivatives and ten acylphosphine derivatives could be isolated. NMR spectroscopy and single-crystal X-ray crystallography enabled a clear structural assignment of these compounds. Oxidation of selected TAPs led to the formation of the corresponding tris(acyl)phosphine oxides (TAPOs). Furthermore, their spectroscopic properties as well as their photochemistry was investigated. Especially, the TAPO compounds were evaluated for their suitability as photoinitiators by CIDNP spectroscopy, photobleaching measurements and by storage stability tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Wiesner
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9/V, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Dmytro Neshchadin
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9/II, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Gabriel Glotz
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9/II, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Zeno Gfader
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9/V, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Erik Schrader
- Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Samuel Christen
- Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Roland C Fischer
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9/V, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Anne-Marie Kelterer
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9/II, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Georg Gescheidt
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9/II, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Hansjörg Grützmacher
- Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Haas
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9/V, 8010, Graz, Austria
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3
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Li Y, Zhang X, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Hou D. Recent Progress of the Vat Photopolymerization Technique in Tissue Engineering: A Brief Review of Mechanisms, Methods, Materials, and Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3940. [PMID: 37835989 PMCID: PMC10574968 DOI: 10.3390/polym15193940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Vat photopolymerization (VP), including stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), and volumetric printing, employs UV or visible light to solidify cell-laden photoactive bioresin contained within a vat in a point-by-point, layer-by-layer, or volumetric manner. VP-based bioprinting has garnered substantial attention in both academia and industry due to its unprecedented control over printing resolution and accuracy, as well as its rapid printing speed. It holds tremendous potential for the fabrication of tissue- and organ-like structures in the field of regenerative medicine. This review summarizes the recent progress of VP in the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. First, it introduces the mechanism of photopolymerization, followed by an explanation of the printing technique and commonly used biomaterials. Furthermore, the application of VP-based bioprinting in tissue engineering was discussed. Finally, the challenges facing VP-based bioprinting are discussed, and the future trends in VP-based bioprinting are projected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Li
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Xueqin Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Yuxuan Zhang
- FuYang Sineva Materials Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing 100176, China
| | - Dan Hou
- Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, China National Petroleum Corporation, Beijing 102206, China
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4
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Kaya K, Kiliclar HC, Yagci Y. Photochemically generated ionic species for cationic and step-growth polymerizations. Eur Polym J 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2023.112000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/09/2023]
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5
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Muñoz-Bartual M, Herrero-Martínez JM, Esteve-Turrillas FA. Development of paper-immobilized molecularly imprinted polymers by laser pointer activation for methamphetamine extraction with analysis by ion mobility spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1692:463852. [PMID: 36774915 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.463852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A fast, simple, cheap, and versatile strategy has been proposed for the synthesis of paper-immobilized molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) by photoactivated bulk polymerization over a piece of nitrocellulose using a 405 nm laser pointer. Polymerization was carried out using a mixture of methacrylic acid and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate, using methamphetamine as template molecule and bis(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl)phenylphosphine oxide as radical initiator. After investigation of different polymerization parameters, the following experimental conditions were found to give best results: size of nitrocellulose strip (13.5 × 4.0 × 0.8 mm), type of porogen (acetonitrile), polymerization mixture volume (75 µL), and irradiation times (10 min). Experimental conditions (such as sample pH, extraction and desorption time, and type and volume of desorption solvent) were also adjusted for the extraction of methamphetamine using the proposed paper-MIP. Methamphetamine determination was carried out by ion mobility spectrometry providing a limit of detection of 14 µg L-1 and quantitative recoveries from 81 to 95% using spiked urine and oral fluid samples. The proposed paper-immobilized MIP device allows a simple and selective sample extraction procedure for the determination of methamphetamine in oral fluids and urine with a high portability, minimal solvent consumption, and reduced costs compared to other conventional approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Muñoz-Bartual
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, 50th Dr. Moliner St., 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - J M Herrero-Martínez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, 50th Dr. Moliner St., 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - F A Esteve-Turrillas
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Valencia, 50th Dr. Moliner St., 46100 Burjassot, Spain.
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Photoinitiator of photosensitizer? Dual behaviour of m-terphenyls in photopolymerization processes. Eur Polym J 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2023.111971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
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7
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Delaey J, Parmentier L, Pyl L, Brancart J, Adriaensens P, Dobos A, Dubruel P, Van Vlierberghe S. Solid-State Crosslinkable, Shape-Memory Polyesters Serving Tissue Engineering. Macromol Rapid Commun 2023; 44:e2200955. [PMID: 36755500 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202200955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Acrylate-endcapped urethane-based precursors constituting a poly(D,L-lactide)/poly(ε-caprolactone) (PDLLA/PCL) random copolymer backbone are synthesized with linear and star-shaped architectures and various molar masses. It is shown that the glass transition and thus the actuation temperature could be tuned by varying the monomer content (0-8 wt% ε-caprolactone, Tg,crosslinked = 10-42 °C) in the polymers. The resulting polymers are analyzed for their physico-chemical properties and viscoelastic behavior (G'max = 9.6-750 kPa). The obtained polymers are subsequently crosslinked and their shape-memory properties are found to be excellent (Rr = 88-100%, Rf = 78-99.5%). Moreover, their potential toward processing via various additive manufacturing techniques (digital light processing, two-photon polymerization and direct powder extrusion) is evidenced with retention of their shape-memory effect. Additionally, all polymers are found to be biocompatible in direct contact in vitro cell assays using primary human foreskin fibroblasts (HFFs) through MTS assay (up to ≈100% metabolic activity relative to TCP) and live/dead staining (>70% viability).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper Delaey
- Polymer Chemistry & Biomaterials group (PBM), Centre of Macromolecular Chemistry (CMaC), Department of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Laurens Parmentier
- Polymer Chemistry & Biomaterials group (PBM), Centre of Macromolecular Chemistry (CMaC), Department of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Lincy Pyl
- Department of Mechanics of Materials and Constructions (MeMC), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, 1050, Belgium
| | - Joost Brancart
- Physical Chemistry and Polymer Science (FYSC), Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, 1050, Belgium
| | - Peter Adriaensens
- Applied and Analytical Chemistry, Institute for Materials Research, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, 3590, Belgium
| | - Agnes Dobos
- Polymer Chemistry & Biomaterials group (PBM), Centre of Macromolecular Chemistry (CMaC), Department of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium.,BIO INX BV, Tech Lane 66, Zwijnaarde, 9052, Belgium
| | - Peter Dubruel
- Polymer Chemistry & Biomaterials group (PBM), Centre of Macromolecular Chemistry (CMaC), Department of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Sandra Van Vlierberghe
- Polymer Chemistry & Biomaterials group (PBM), Centre of Macromolecular Chemistry (CMaC), Department of Organic and Macromolecular Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium.,BIO INX BV, Tech Lane 66, Zwijnaarde, 9052, Belgium
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8
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Dumur F. The Future of Visible Light Photoinitiators of Polymerization for Photocrosslinking Applications. Eur Polym J 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2023.111883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
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9
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Caplins BW, Higgins CI, Kolibaba TJ, Arp U, Miller CC, Poster DL, Zarobila CJ, Zong Y, Killgore JP. Characterizing light engine uniformity and its influence on liquid crystal display based vat photopolymerization printing. ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING 2023; 62:10.1016/j.addma.2022.103381. [PMID: 36733692 PMCID: PMC9890382 DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2022.103381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Vat photopolymerization (VP) is a rapidly growing category of additive manufacturing. As VP methods mature the expectation is that the quality of printed parts will be highly reproducible. At present, detailed characterization of the light engines used in liquid crystal display (LCD)-based VP systems is lacking and so it is unclear if they are built to sufficiently tight tolerances to meet the current and/or future needs of additive manufacturing. Herein, we map the irradiance, spectral characteristics, and optical divergence of a nominally 405 nm LCD-based VP light engine. We find that there is notable variation in all of these properties as a function of position on the light engine that cause changes in extent of polymerization and surface texture. We further demonstrate through a derived photon absorption figure of merit and through printed test parts that the spatial heterogeneity observed in the light engine is significant enough to affect part fidelity. These findings help to explain several possible causes of variable part quality and also highlight the need for improved optical performance on LCD-based VP printers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin W. Caplins
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO, 80305, United States
| | - Callie I. Higgins
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO, 80305, United States
| | - Thomas J. Kolibaba
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO, 80305, United States
| | - Uwe Arp
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, United States
| | - C. Cameron Miller
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, United States
| | - Dianne L. Poster
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, United States
| | - Clarence J. Zarobila
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, United States
| | - Yuqin Zong
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, United States
| | - Jason P. Killgore
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO, 80305, United States
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10
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Choi HS, Ahn GN, Na GS, Cha HJ, Kim DP. A Perfluoropolyether Microfluidic Device for Cell-Based Drug Screening with Accurate Quantitative Analysis. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2022; 8:4577-4585. [DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c00435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Sun Choi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Gwang-Noh Ahn
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Gi-Su Na
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung Joon Cha
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Pyo Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, Republic of Korea
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11
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Müller SM, Schlögl S, Wiesner T, Haas M, Griesser T. Recent Advances in Type I Photoinitiators for Visible Light Induced Photopolymerization. CHEMPHOTOCHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/cptc.202200091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Monika Müller
- Montanuniversität Leoben: Montanuniversitat Leoben Institute of Chemistry of Polymeric Materials AUSTRIA
| | - Sandra Schlögl
- Polymer Competence Center Leoben GmbH Chemistry of Elastomers and Surfaces AUSTRIA
| | - Tanja Wiesner
- Graz University of Technology: Technische Universitat Graz Institute of Inorganic Chemistry AUSTRIA
| | - Michael Haas
- Graz University of Technology: Technische Universitat Graz Institute of Inorganic Chemistry AUSTRIA
| | - Thomas Griesser
- Montanuniversitat Leoben Chair of Chemistry of Polymeric Materials Otto Glöckel-Straße 2/IV 8700 Leoben AUSTRIA
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12
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Yan J, Lai H, Zeng B, Wang L, Xing F, Xiao P. Photoinduced free radical-releasing systems and their anticancer properties. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2022; 21:1405-1417. [PMID: 35553411 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-022-00231-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cancer has been a serious threat and impact on the health and life of human. Phototherapy is considered as a promising therapeutic method to replace the traditional treatment in clinic owing to its noninvasive nature and high efficiency. Photoinitiators have long been used in the field of photopolymerization; however, few studies have been carried out on their potential as anticancer agents under light irradiation. In this study, the effect of a photoinitiator, diphenyl (2, 4, 6-trimethylbenzoyl) phosphine oxide (TPO), on breast cancer is investigated and the related mechanism is elucidated. It is found that TPO has low dark toxicity and significant phototoxicity. TPO can inhibit cell growth and development and promote cell apoptosis through a mitochondrial pathway under light irradiation. Further studies show that cell apoptosis is induced by free radicals produced from the photolysis of TPO to activate JNK phosphorylation. Overall, we identify the antitumor effects of TPO in vitro for the first time, and provides a proof of concept for its application as a novel photolatent therapeutic drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieyu Yan
- Department of Immunobiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, #601 Huangpu West Avenue, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Haiwang Lai
- Department of Immunobiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, #601 Huangpu West Avenue, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
| | - Boning Zeng
- Department of Immunobiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, #601 Huangpu West Avenue, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Liqing Wang
- Department of Immunobiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, #601 Huangpu West Avenue, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Feiyue Xing
- Department of Immunobiology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, #601 Huangpu West Avenue, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
- MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China.
| | - Pu Xiao
- Research School of Chemistry, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia.
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13
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14
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15
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Study on bifunctional acyldiphenylphosphine oxides photoinitiator for free radical polymerization. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2022.111093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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16
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Li Q, Li H, Wang Z, Liu J, Chen X, Liu D, Song L, Han Y, Wang Z, Yu Q. Bifunctional free radical photoinitiator based on syringaldehyde. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.5625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qianmin Li
- College of Materials Science and Engineering Shandong University of Science and Technology Qingdao China
| | - Huimin Li
- College of Materials Science and Engineering Shandong University of Science and Technology Qingdao China
| | - Zhen Wang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering Shandong University of Science and Technology Qingdao China
| | - Jiuhong Liu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering Shandong University of Science and Technology Qingdao China
| | - Xuquan Chen
- College of Materials Science and Engineering Shandong University of Science and Technology Qingdao China
| | - Dayong Liu
- College of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Engineering Huanghuai University Zhumadian China
| | - Liang Song
- College of Materials Science and Engineering Shandong University of Science and Technology Qingdao China
| | - Yuxi Han
- College of Materials Science and Engineering Shandong University of Science and Technology Qingdao China
| | - Zhongwei Wang
- College of Materials Science and Engineering Shandong University of Science and Technology Qingdao China
| | - Qing Yu
- College of Materials Science and Engineering Shandong University of Science and Technology Qingdao China
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17
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Lalevée J, Hammoud F, Pavlou A, Petropoulos A, Graff B, Siskos M, Hijazi A, Morlet-Savary F, Dumur F. Naphthoquinone-based Imidazolyl Esters as Blue-Light-Sensitive Type I Photoinitiators. Polym Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2py00753c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In this work, a series of Type I photoinitiators (PIs) based on the naphthoquinone scaffold were designed and synthesized for the first time, in order to induce photopolymerization under visible...
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18
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Yen SC, Lee ZH, Ni JS, Chen CC, Chen YC. Effects of the number and position of methoxy substituents on triphenylamine-based chalcone visible-light-absorbing photoinitiators. Polym Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2py00604a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Five visible-light-absorbing triphenylamine-based chalcone photoinitiators (CY1–CY5) have been synthesized for application in free radical photopolymerization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Chieh Yen
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan
| | - Zhong-Han Lee
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Shyang Ni
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Chin Chen
- Department of Chemistry, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, 40227, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chung Chen
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan
- Photo-SMART (Photo-sensitive Material Advanced Research and Technology Center), National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung City 80778, Taiwan
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Bartkowiak M, Czech Z, Kim HJ, Shim GS, Nowak M, Antosik AK. Photoreactive UV-Crosslinkable Acrylic Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives (PSA) Containing Multifunctional Photoinitiators. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:4413. [PMID: 34960964 PMCID: PMC8709139 DOI: 10.3390/polym13244413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of ultraviolet radiation (UV) technology for the crosslinking of acrylic pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSA) is the one of various crosslinking methods, being the alternative to the conventional crosslinking process of solvent-based acrylic systems. It also requires a photoinitiator to absorb the impinging UV and induce photocrosslinking. As previously mentioned, a photoinitiator is one of the important and necessary components in UV-inducted crosslinking of acrylic pressure-sensitive adhesives. The activity of multifunctional conventional saturated photoinitiators of type I and type II, especially benzophenone-based in the photoreactive UV-crosslinkable acrylic PSA was described. The effect of the multifunctional type-II photoinitiators on the acrylic PSA, such as tack, peel adhesion and shear strength were summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Bartkowiak
- Department of Chemical Organic Technology and Polymeric Materials, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Pułaskiego 10, 70-322 Szczecin, Poland; (Z.C.); (M.N.); (A.K.A.)
| | - Zbigniew Czech
- Department of Chemical Organic Technology and Polymeric Materials, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Pułaskiego 10, 70-322 Szczecin, Poland; (Z.C.); (M.N.); (A.K.A.)
| | - Hyun-Joong Kim
- Laboratory of Adhesion and Bio-Composites, Program in Environmental Materials Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (H.-J.K.); (G.-S.S.)
- Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
| | - Gyu-Seong Shim
- Laboratory of Adhesion and Bio-Composites, Program in Environmental Materials Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea; (H.-J.K.); (G.-S.S.)
| | - Małgorzata Nowak
- Department of Chemical Organic Technology and Polymeric Materials, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Pułaskiego 10, 70-322 Szczecin, Poland; (Z.C.); (M.N.); (A.K.A.)
| | - Adrian Krzysztof Antosik
- Department of Chemical Organic Technology and Polymeric Materials, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin, Pułaskiego 10, 70-322 Szczecin, Poland; (Z.C.); (M.N.); (A.K.A.)
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20
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Duan H, Leng K, Xu X, Li Q, Liu D, Han Y, Gao J, Yu Q, Wang Z. Monoacylphosphine oxides with substituents in the phosphonyl moiety as Norrish I photoinitiators: Synthesis, photoinitiattion properties and mechanism. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2021.113517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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21
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Wu Y, Li R, Wang J, Situ Y, Huang H. A new carbazolyl‐basedacylphosphine oxide photoinitiator with high performance and low migration. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- YinPing Wu
- School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering South China University of Technology Guangzhou China
| | - Rui Li
- School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering South China University of Technology Guangzhou China
| | - JiuWu Wang
- School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering South China University of Technology Guangzhou China
| | - Yue Situ
- School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering South China University of Technology Guangzhou China
| | - Hong Huang
- School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering South China University of Technology Guangzhou China
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22
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Lee ZH, Huang TL, Hammoud F, Chen CC, Hijazi A, Graff B, Lalevée J, Chen YC. Effect of the Steric Hindrance and Branched Substituents on Visible Phenylamine Oxime Ester Photoinitiators: Photopolymerization Kinetics Investigation through Photo-DSC Experiments. Photochem Photobiol 2021; 98:773-782. [PMID: 34674274 DOI: 10.1111/php.13545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In this work, free radical photopolymerization (FRP) kinetics for series of different phenylamine oxime ester structures (DMA-P, DEA-P, DMA-M, TP-2P, TP-2M and TP-3M) was investigated. Steric hindrance and branched substituents were prepared to realize the corresponding electronic and photopolymerization effects. The photophysical, electrochemical, thermal properties and radical concentration were investigated by UV-visible spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry (CV), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Furthermore, the structure-reactivity relationships were also studied in detail through photo-DSC experiment. We demonstrate that the introduction of alkyl chains and/or numbers of oxime esters affects significantly the photoreactivity. Under the same weight ratio of formulation and irradiated condition, TP-3M containing three oxime esters in its structure and methyl group in the periphery exhibits the highest double-bond conversion efficiency. TP-3M-based formulation also shows a wide operation window under different contents and light intensities. Importantly, the photoreactivity of the TP-3M-based system was found to be better than the commercial photoinitiator (OXE-01) under LED@405 nm at a low concentration. This work could provide some significance to the design of oxime esters with enhanced photoreactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong-Han Lee
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Liang Huang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Fatima Hammoud
- IS2M UMR 7361, Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, Mulhouse, France.,Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,EDST, Université Libanaise, Beyrouth, Lebanon
| | - Ching-Chin Chen
- Department of Chemistry, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | | | - Bernadette Graff
- IS2M UMR 7361, Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, Mulhouse, France.,Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jacques Lalevée
- IS2M UMR 7361, Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, Mulhouse, France.,Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Yung-Chung Chen
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Photo-SMART (Photo-sensitive Material Advanced Research and Technology Center), National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan
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23
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Wiesner T, Haas M. Do germanium-based photoinitiators have the potential to replace the well-established acylphosphine oxides? Dalton Trans 2021; 50:12392-12398. [PMID: 34545890 PMCID: PMC8453693 DOI: 10.1039/d1dt02308j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In the last few decades, there has been an increasing demand for photoinitiators with growing requirements. Nowadays, photoinitiators need to fulfill several requirements such as a low level of toxicity, biocompatibility, fast polymerization rates, high activities, good photobleaching and much more in order to remain competitive on the market. Accordingly, we compare acylphosphine oxides and acylgermanes, two common classes of photoinitiators, with respect to their various synthetic pathways, toxicity, availability and performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Wiesner
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9/IV, 8010 Graz, Austria.
| | - Michael Haas
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 9/IV, 8010 Graz, Austria.
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24
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Le CMQ, Petitory T, Wu X, Spangenberg A, Ortyl J, Galek M, Infante L, Thérien‐Aubin H, Chemtob A. Water‐Soluble Photoinitiators from Dimethylamino‐Substituted Monoacylphosphine Oxide for Hydrogel and Latex Preparation. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.202100217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cuong Minh Quoc Le
- CNRS, IS2M UMR7361 Université de Haute‐Alsace Mulhouse F‐68100 France
- Université de Strasbourg France
| | - Tatiana Petitory
- CNRS, IS2M UMR7361 Université de Haute‐Alsace Mulhouse F‐68100 France
- Université de Strasbourg France
| | - Xingyu Wu
- CNRS, IS2M UMR7361 Université de Haute‐Alsace Mulhouse F‐68100 France
- Université de Strasbourg France
| | - Arnaud Spangenberg
- CNRS, IS2M UMR7361 Université de Haute‐Alsace Mulhouse F‐68100 France
- Université de Strasbourg France
| | - Joanna Ortyl
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology Cracow University of Technology Warszawska 24 Cracow 31‐155 Poland
- Photo HiTech Ltd Bobrzyńskiego 14 Cracow 30‐348 Poland
| | - Mariusz Galek
- Photo HiTech Ltd Bobrzyńskiego 14 Cracow 30‐348 Poland
| | - Lorena Infante
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research Ackermannweg 10 Mainz D‐55128 Germany
| | | | - Abraham Chemtob
- CNRS, IS2M UMR7361 Université de Haute‐Alsace Mulhouse F‐68100 France
- Université de Strasbourg France
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25
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The Effect of Type-I Photoinitiators on the Kinetics of the UV-Induced Cotelomerization Process of Acrylate Monomers and Properties of Obtained Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14164563. [PMID: 34443085 PMCID: PMC8398243 DOI: 10.3390/ma14164563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
A new method of solvent-free acrylic pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSAs) based on UV-induced cotelomerization products was presented. The key acrylic monomers (i.e., n-butyl acrylate and acrylic acid) with copolymerizable photoinitiator 4-acrylooxybenzophenone in the presence of a selected chain transfer agent (tetrabromomethane, TBM) were used in the UV-cotelomerization process. Moreover, two kinds of UV-photoinitiators (α-hydroxyalkylphenones, HPs and acylphosphine oxides, APOs) were tested. Photo-DSC, viscosity, thermogravimetric, and GPC measurements for cotelomers were performed. The kinetics study revealed that the systems with APOs, especially Omnirad 819 and Omnirad TPO, were characterized by a much higher reaction rate and greater initiation efficiency than HPs systems were. Additionally, the APO-based syrups exhibited a higher solid content (ca. 60–96 wt%), a higher dynamic viscosity (5–185 Pa·s), but slightly lower molecular weights (Mn and Mw) compared to HP syrups. However, better self-adhesive features (i.e., adhesion and tack) were observed for PSAs based on cotelomers syrups obtained using APOs with lower solid contents (55–80 wt%). It was found that as the solids content (i.e., monomers conversion) increased the adhesion, the tack and glass transition temperature decreased and the type and amount of photoinitiator had no effect on polydispersity. Most of the obtained PSAs were characterized by excellent cohesion, both at 20 °C and 70 °C.
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26
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Esen DS, Cakir Yigit N, Tunca U, Hizal G, Arsu N. Synthesis and characterization of multiarm (
Benzoin‐PS
)
m
‐polyDVB
star polymer as a polymeric photoinitiator for polymerization of acrylates and methacrylates. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Duygu Sevinc Esen
- Art and Science Faculty, Department of Chemistry Yildiz Technical University Yildiz Istanbul Turkey
| | - Nese Cakir Yigit
- Art and Science Faculty, Department of Chemistry İstanbul Technical University Maslak Istanbul Turkey
- Faculty of Engineering, Department of Polymer Materials Engineering Yalova University Yalova Turkey
| | - Umit Tunca
- Art and Science Faculty, Department of Chemistry İstanbul Technical University Maslak Istanbul Turkey
| | - Gurkan Hizal
- Art and Science Faculty, Department of Chemistry İstanbul Technical University Maslak Istanbul Turkey
| | - Nergis Arsu
- Art and Science Faculty, Department of Chemistry Yildiz Technical University Yildiz Istanbul Turkey
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27
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Huang TL, Chen YC. Ketone Number and Substitution Effect of Benzophenone Derivatives on the Free Radical Photopolymerization of Visible-Light Type-II Photoinitiators. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13111801. [PMID: 34072579 PMCID: PMC8199044 DOI: 10.3390/polym13111801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Three novel visible-light absorbing benzophenone-based hydrogen acceptors (BPD-D, BPDM-D and BPDP-D) were designed on the basis of a donor-benzophenone-donor structural backbone. Mono or diketone units and double diphenylamine electron-donating groups in para-or meta-positions were introduced to comprehend the electronic and structural effects on free radical photopolymerization (FRPP). Such a structural change leads not only to a red-shift of the absorption maxima but strongly enhances their molar extinction coefficients compared to the commercial phototinitiators such as benzophenone (BP) and 4,4'-bis(diethylamino) benzophenone (EMK). In addition, excellent melting points and thermal decomposition temperatures were achieved for those novel compounds. Further, the photochemical reaction behavior was studied by cyclic voltammograms (CV), photolysis and electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy. Finally, benzophenone derivatives in combination with an amine (TEA, triethylamine) as a co-initiator were prepared and initiated the FRPP of trimethylolpropane trimethacrylate (TMPTMA) using a UV lamp as a light source. When used in stoichiometric amounts, the BPDP-D/TEA had the best double bond conversion efficiency among all the compounds studied, and were even superior to the reference compounds of BP/TEA and EMK/TEA. The results and conclusions could provide the fundamental rules applicable for the structural design of benzophenone derivative-based photoinitiators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tung-Liang Huang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan;
| | - Yung-Chung Chen
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan;
- Photo-SMART (Photo-Sensitive Material Advanced Research and Technology Center), National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +886-7-3814526-15119
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28
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Giacoletto N, Ibrahim-Ouali M, Dumur F. Recent advances on squaraine-based photoinitiators of polymerization. Eur Polym J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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29
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30
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Dumur F. Recent advances on visible light photoinitiators of polymerization based on Indane-1,3-dione and related derivatives. Eur Polym J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2020.110178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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31
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Lee ZH, Hammoud F, Hijazi A, Graff B, Lalevée J, Chen YC. Synthesis and free radical photopolymerization of triphenylamine-based oxime ester photoinitiators. Polym Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d0py01768j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Four visible light triphenylamine-based oxime ester photoinitiators (TP-1–4) were synthesized successfully. Photochemical reaction, photoreactivity and 3D pattern experiments were also conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong-Han Lee
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering
- National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology
- Kaohsiung 80778
- Taiwan
| | - Fatima Hammoud
- Université de Haute-Alsace
- CNRS
- IS2 M UMR 7361
- Mulhouse
- France
| | | | | | | | - Yung-Chung Chen
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering
- National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology
- Kaohsiung 80778
- Taiwan
- Photo-SMART (Photo-sensitive Material Advanced Research and Technology Center)
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32
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Noirbent G, Dumur F. Photoinitiators of polymerization with reduced environmental impact: Nature as an unlimited and renewable source of dyes. Eur Polym J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2020.110109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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33
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Gziut K, Kowalczyk A, Schmidt B. Free-Radical Bulk-Photopolymerization Process as a Method of Obtaining Thermally Curable Structural Self-Adhesive Tapes and Effect of Used Type I Photoinitiators. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12102191. [PMID: 32987966 PMCID: PMC7601257 DOI: 10.3390/polym12102191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A new fabrication method for thin (120 µm) thermally curable structural self-adhesive tapes (SATs) was demonstrated by utilizing a series of acrylic syrups (ASs) modified using Bisphenol A-based liquid epoxy resin. The acrylic syrups containing poly(butyl acrylate-co-butyl methacrylate-co-glycidyl methacrylate-co-2-hydroxyetyl acrylate-co-4-acryloyloxy benzophenone) were synthesized via free-radical bulk-photopolymerization (FRBP) process. Influence of different type I radical photoinitiators (PIs), i.e., α-hydroxyalkylphenones (HPs), acylphosphine oxides (APOs) and its mixtures (HPs/APOs and APO/APO) on selected physico-chemical features of obtained ASs was studied. It turned out that APO-type PIs are more effective in the FRBP process (NMR studies). Self-adhesive tests of SATs revealed that the monomers’ conversion in ASs have a significant influence on adhesion and tack. Moreover, the polymer structures formed at the UV cross-linking stage of SATs significantly affect the cross-linking degree of SATs during thermal curing (differential scanning calorimetry method). The highest values of overlap shear strength were achieved by SATs based on ASs with monomers’ conversion on the level 50–60%.
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