Superabsorbent Hydrogels Based to Polyacrylamide/Cashew Tree Gum for the Controlled Release of Water and Plant Nutrients

Progress and Prospects of Polymer/One-Dimensional Nanoclay Superabsorbent Composites

Superabsorbent materials (SAMs), featuring a three-dimensional (3D) hydrophilic polymer network, can absorb and retain water up to thousands of times their own weight, even under pressure. This makes them indispensable in various fields, including hygiene products and agriculture. The water absorption capacity of SAMs is influenced by the presence of hydrophilic groups and a swellable network structure. To optimize performance, one must adjust the types and concentrations of functional groups. Additionally, changes in the density and regularity of the polymer network are necessary. Significant performance improvements are limited by inherent challenges in modifying polymer chains or networks. To enhance performance, researchers focus on manipulating the components and structure of the polymer network. Effective water retention requires the network to fully expand while maintaining its strength. Incorporating nanoparticles, especially one-dimensional (1D) nanoclays, minimizes chain entanglement and prevents network collapse during drying. This approach effectively addresses the above challenges. Upon swelling, these nanoparticles improve hydrogen bonding within the polymer network, significantly boosting the performance of SAMs. Nanoclays are abundant natural silicates found in various nanostructures like nanorods, nanofibers, and nanotubes. These nanoclays contain reactive silanol groups that form strong hydrogen bonds with polymer chains. This aids in network formation and reduces costs. Advances in synthesis and structural control have facilitated the development of versatile 1D nanoclay-based SAMs. This paper reviews the structure, characteristics, and applications of such materials and proposes future research directions aimed at developing higher-performance clay-based SAMs.

Cashew gum as future multipurpose biomacromolecules

The review highlights significant advances in delivery systems, with an emphasis on the use of cashew gum (CG), a natural polysaccharide extracted from Anacardium occidentale L., recognized for its remarkable biodegradability and versatility. CG has a wide range of applications spanning sectors such as food, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and biotechnology. This study examines research focused on the extraction, purification, and chemical modifications of CG, as well as its combination with other biopolymers to enhance physicochemical and mechanical properties. These strategies aim to optimize the gum's characteristics, allowing for the creation of innovative materials with improved performance, expanding its potential applications. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends, focusing on the utilization of CG as a polymeric component in the development of biomaterials with diverse applications.

Polyacrylamide Hydrogel Containing Starch and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash: Synthesis, Characterisation, and Application in Cement Pastes and Mortars

Internal curing is a process based on the addition of materials that function as water reservoirs in cementitious media. Superabsorbent hydrogels are an alternative that can be used as an internal curing agent, as they have the ability to absorb and release water in a controlled manner. In the present work, superabsorbent hydrogels based on crosslinked polyacrylamide in the presence of starch and sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) were developed and applied to mortars as an internal curing agent. The synthesized hydrogels were evaluated by SEM, FTIR, and swelling analysis. Cement pastes and mortars were produced using different amounts of hydrogel (0.03%, 0.06%, and 0.1% by weight). An analysis of the cement pastes and mortars revealed that hydrogel contributes to hydration, thus improving the quality of the product. Furthermore, the addition of 0.03% hydrogel by weight increased the mechanical resistance of the mortars in up to 26.8% at 28 days of curing as compared with reference (without hydrogel). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to use a hydrogel based on polyacrylamide crosslinked with starch and SCBA as a curing agent for mortars and cement pastes. This approach is environmentally friendly, because it uses a natural product (starch) and a byproduct from the sugarcane industry (SCBA).

Cutting-Edge Hydrogel Technologies in Tissue Engineering and Biosensing: An Updated Review

Hydrogels, known for their unique ability to retain large amounts of water, have emerged as pivotal materials in both tissue engineering and biosensing applications. This review provides an updated and comprehensive examination of cutting-edge hydrogel technologies and their multifaceted roles in these fields. Initially, the chemical composition and intrinsic properties of both natural and synthetic hydrogels are discussed, highlighting their biocompatibility and biodegradability. The manuscript then probes into innovative scaffold designs and fabrication techniques such as 3D printing, electrospinning, and self-assembly methods, emphasizing their applications in regenerating bone, cartilage, skin, and neural tissues. In the realm of biosensing, hydrogels' responsive nature is explored through their integration into optical, electrochemical, and piezoelectric sensors. These sensors are instrumental in medical diagnostics for glucose monitoring, pathogen detection, and biomarker identification, as well as in environmental and industrial applications like pollution and food quality monitoring. Furthermore, the review explores cross-disciplinary innovations, including the use of hydrogels in wearable devices, and hybrid systems, and their potential in personalized medicine. By addressing current challenges and future directions, this review aims to underscore the transformative impact of hydrogel technologies in advancing healthcare and industrial practices, thereby providing a vital resource for researchers and practitioners in the field.

Synthesis and Characterization of Cassava Gum Hydrogel Associated with Chlorhexidine and Evaluation of Release and Antimicrobial Activity

Hydrogels from natural sources are attracting increasing interest due to their ability to protect biologically active molecules. Starch extracted from cassava tubers is a promising material for synthesizing these hydrogels. Copolymerization of cassava gum and incorporation of chlorhexidine digluconate (CLX) into the hydrogels is confirmed by changes in the crystallographic profile, as observed through X-ray diffraction, and a shift in the 1000 cm-1 band in the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy spectrum. The differential scanning calorimetry reveals changes in the decomposition temperature of the synthesized hydrogels related to CLX volatility. Micrographs illustrate the material's porosity. Release tests indicate a constant linear release over 72 h, while antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans is satisfactory, with 100% effectiveness from 0.5% CLX and the formation of inhibition halos. Toxicity and biocompatibility studies show no cytotoxicity. The continuous release of chlorhexidine is promising for components of biomedical implants and applications as it can ensure antimicrobial action according to specific therapeutic needs.

Agriculture 4.0: Polymer Hydrogels as Delivery Agents of Active Ingredients

The evolution from conventional to modern agricultural practices, characterized by Agriculture 4.0 principles such as the application of innovative materials, smart water, and nutrition management, addresses the present-day challenges of food supply. In this context, polymer hydrogels have become a promising material for enhancing agricultural productivity due to their ability to retain and then release water, which can help alleviate the need for frequent irrigation in dryland environments. Furthermore, the controlled release of fertilizers by the hydrogels decreases chemical overdosing risks and the environmental impact associated with the use of agrochemicals. The potential of polymer hydrogels in sustainable agriculture and farming and their impact on soil quality is revealed by their ability to deliver nutritional and protective active ingredients. Thus, the impact of hydrogels on plant growth, development, and yield was discussed. The question of which hydrogels are more suitable for agriculture-natural or synthetic-is debatable, as both have their merits and drawbacks. An analysis of polymer hydrogel life cycles in terms of their initial material has shown the advantage of bio-based hydrogels, such as cellulose, lignin, starch, alginate, chitosan, and their derivatives and hybrids, aligning with sustainable practices and reducing dependence on non-renewable resources.

Characterization, Biocompatibility and Antioxidant Activity of Hydrogels Containing Propolis Extract as an Alternative Treatment in Wound Healing

Hydrogels consist of a network of highly porous polymeric chains with the potential for use as a wound dressing. Propolis is a natural product with several biological properties including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant activities. This study was aimed at synthesizing and characterizing a polyacrylamide/methylcellulose hydrogel containing propolis as an active ingredient, to serve as a wound dressing alternative, for the treatment of skin lesions. The hydrogels were prepared using free radical polymerization, and were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetry, differential scanning calorimetry, swelling capacity, mechanical and rheological properties, UV-Vis spectroscopy, antioxidant activity by the DPPH, ABTS and FRAP assays and biocompatibility determined in Vero cells and J774 macrophages by the MTT assay. Hydrogels showed a porous and foliaceous structure with a well-defined network, a good ability to absorb water and aqueous solutions simulating body fluids as well as desirable mechanical properties and pseudoplastic behavior. In hydrogels containing 1.0 and 2.5% propolis, the contents of total polyphenols were 24.74 ± 1.71 mg GAE/g and 32.10 ± 1.01 mg GAE/g and those of total flavonoids 8.01 ± 0.99 mg QE/g and 13.81 ± 0.71 mg QE/g, respectively, in addition to good antioxidant activity determined with all three methods used. Therefore, hydrogels containing propolis extract, may serve as a promising alternative wound dressing for the treatment of skin lesions, due to their anti-oxidant properties, low cost and availability.

Preparation and Properties of Attapulgite/Brucite Fiber-Based Highly Absorbent Polymer Composite

The ATP-BF-P(HEC-AA-AMPS) composite highly absorbent polymer was copolymerized with acrylic acid (AA) and 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid (AMPS) using an aqueous solution method with attapulgite (ATP) and attapulgite (ATP) as a matrix. The prepared ATP-BF-P(HEC-AA-AMPS) was characterized in terms of microstructure and tested for its water absorption capacity, water retention properties, and pH dynamic sensing ability. The results showed that the synthesized ATP-BF-P(HEC-AA-AMPS) had a rough and porous surface and a high water absorption capacity and rate, almost reaching the maximum water absorption around 20 min, and demonstrated excellent water retention performance at low and medium temperatures. ATP-BF-P(HEC-AA-AMPS) has a sensitive dynamic sensing ability in different pH solutions, with a high swelling capacity between pH 6.0 and 10.0. When the pH value exceeded 10.0, the swelling rate decreased rapidly. Additionally, the thermal stability and mechanical strength of the highly absorbent polymers were significantly improved after blending with ATP and BF.

Natural gums and their derivatives based hydrogels: in biomedical, environment, agriculture, and food industry

The hydrogels based on natural gums and chemically derivatized natural gums have great interest in pharmaceutical, food, cosmetics, and environmental remediation, due to their: economic viability, sustainability, nontoxicity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. Since these natural gems are from plants, microorganisms, and seaweeds, they offer a great opportunity to chemically derivatize and modify into novel, innovative biomaterials as scaffolds for tissue engineering and drug delivery. Derivatization improves swelling properties, thereby developing interest in agriculture and separating technologies. This review highlights the work done over the past three and a half decades and the possibility of developing novel materials and technologies in a cost-effective and sustainable manner. This review has compiled various natural gums, their source, chemical composition, and chemically derivatized gums, various methods to synthesize hydrogel, and their applications in biomedical, food and agriculture, textile, cosmetics, water purification, remediation, and separation fields.

Superabsorbent hydrogels based on natural polysaccharides: Classification, synthesis, physicochemical properties, and agronomic efficacy under abiotic stress conditions: A review

Superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) are a class of polymers that have attracted tremendous interest due to their multifunctional properties and wide range of applications. The importance of this class of polymers is highlighted by the large number of publications, including articles and patents, dealing with the use of SAPs for various applications. Within this framework, this review provides an overview of SAPs and highlights various key aspects, such as their history, classification, and preparation methods, including those related to chemically or physically cross-linked networks, as well as key factors affecting their performance in terms of water absorption and storage. This review also examines the potential use of polysaccharides-based SAPs in agriculture as soil conditioners or slow-release fertilizers. The basic aspects of SAPs, and methods of chemical modification of polysaccharides are presented and guidelines for the preparation of hydrogels are given. The water retention and swelling mechanisms are discussed in light of some mathematical empirical models. The nutrient slow-release kinetics of nutrient-rich SAPs are also examined on the basic of commonly used mathematical models. Some examples illustrating the advantages of using SAPs in agriculture as soil conditioners and agrochemical carriers to improve crop growth and productivity are presented and discussed. This review also attempts to provide an overview of the role of SAPs in mitigating the adverse effects of various abiotic stresses, such as heavy metals, salinity, and drought, and outlines future trends and prospects.

Cashew gum hydrogel as an alternative to minimize the effect of drought stress on soybean

The use of hydrogels helpsthe production of plants in drought-stress environments. Thus, this work evaluated using different hydrogels to minimize drought stress in soybean cultivation. The treatments employed two different hydrogels, one already commercialized and the other produced with cashew gum (Anacardium occidentale), five levels (0, 30, 60, 120, and 240 mg pot-1) of the hydrogels, and two levels of drought stress in sandy soil. The growth and yield of soybeans and the levels of macro- and micronutrients in soybeans were evaluated.growth. The use of CG hydrogel promoted 12% increase in protein content in the seeds in the when soybean plants were subjected to drought stress. The levels of 30 mg pot-1, corresponding to 7.5 kg ha-1, improved the 'morphological and productive parametersof the soybeans. The increasing levels of hydrogel promoted the increase in P, K, Ca, Mg, and Fe and reduced S and Cu on an exponential scale. The use of cashew gum hydrogel increased the K and Ca contents in soybean seeds compared to commercial hydrogel.

Cellulosic wastepaper modified starch/ itaconic acid/ acrylic acid-based biodegradable hydrogel as a sustain release of NPK fertilizer vehicle for agricultural applications

In this work, wastepaper powder was used as a modifying agent for a biodegradable hydrogel composite of starch, itaconic acid, and acrylic acid. After the addition of an optimum amount of the modifying agent, the swelling ability of the hydrogel was enhanced from 503 g/g to 647 g/g. Further, the hydrogel was also used for sustained release of NPK fertilizer and subsequent effect of the fertilizer loaded hydrogel in okra seed germination was also studied. The NPK loaded-hydrogel showed good sustained-release behavior and 98 % of N, 81 % of P and 95 % of K release were observed after 20th day of incubation. Moreover, the release study was explained by using different kinetic models. In seed germination study, a higher and faster germination rate for okra seeds was observed in case of NPK loaded hydrogel compared to the control system, which was attributed to the synergistic effect of essential macronutrients (N, P, and K) and water that were inside the hydrogel. Most importantly, the hydrogel was found to be biodegradable by using soil burial method and further confirmed by FTIR and SEM analyses. Thus, this work provides an efficient way for utilization of wastepaper in the production of a biodegradable hydrogel for agricultural applications.

Polymer Gel Substrate: Synthesis and Application in the Intensive Light Artificial Culture of Agricultural Plants

This work is devoted to the description of the synthesis of hydrogels in the process of cryotropic gel formation based on copolymerization of synthesized potassium 3-sulfopropyl methacrylate and 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (SPMA-co-HEMA) and assessing the potential possibility of their use as substrates for growing plants in intensive light culture in a greenhouse. Gel substrates based on the SPMA-co-HEMA were created in two compositions, differing from each other in the presence of macro- and microelements, and their effects were studied on the plants' physiological state (content of chlorophylls a and b, activity of catalase and peroxidase enzymes, intensity of lipid peroxidation, elemental compositions) at the vegetative period of their development and on the plants' growth, productivity and quality of plant production at the final stages of development. Experiments were carried out under controlled microclimate conditions. Modern and standard generally accepted methods of gels were employed (ATR-FTIR and 13C NMR spectral studies, scanning electron microscopy, measurement of specific surface area and pore volume), as well as the methods of the physiological and chemical analysis of plants. The study demonstrated the swelling ability of the created gel substrates. Hydrogels' structure, their specific surface area, porosity, and pore volume were investigated. Using the example of representatives of leaf, fruit and root vegetable crops, the high biological activity of gel substrates was revealed throughout the vegetation period. Species specificity in the reaction of plants to the presence of gel substrates in the root-inhabited environment was revealed. Lettuce, tomato and cucumber plants were more responsive to the effect of the gel substrate, and radish plants were less responsive. At the same time, more pronounced positive changes in plant growth, quality and productivity were observed in cucumber and lettuce in the variant of gel substrates with macro- and microelements and in tomato plants in both variants of gel substrates. Further research into the mechanisms of the influence of gel substrates on plants, as well as the synthesis of new gel substrates with more pronounced properties to sorb and retain moisture is promising.

Engineering of PVA/PVP Hydrogels for Agricultural Applications

Hydrogels have gained significant popularity in agricultural applications in terms of minimizing waste and mitigating the negative environmental impact of agrochemicals. This review specifically examines the utilization of environmentally friendly, shapable hydrogels composed of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) in various casings for crop protection against different pests, fertilizing, and watering. To activate their effectiveness, PVA/PVP hydrogels were loaded with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environmentally friendly pesticides, namely hydrogen peroxide (HP), the essential oil thymol, and urea as a fertilizer, either separately or in combination. This review covers various physical and chemical approaches used for loading, shaping, and controlling the release profiles of pesticides and fertilizers. Additionally, it explores the evaluation of the chemical composition, structure, classification, rheology, and morphology of the hydrogels as well as their impact on the thermal stability of the encapsulated pesticides and fertilizer, followed by biological tests. These hydrogels significantly contribute to the stabilization and controlled release of essential nutrients and biocides for plants, while maintaining excellent biocidal and fertilizing properties as well as sustainability characteristics. By shedding light on the latest insights into the concepts, applications, and results of these hydrogels, this review demonstrates their immense potential for widespread future use in agriculture.

Functional Materials Made by Combining Hydrogels (Cross-Linked Polyacrylamides) and Conducting Polymers (Polyanilines)-A Critical Review

Hydrogels made of cross-linked polyacrlyamides (cPAM) and conducting materials made of polyanilines (PANIs) are both the most widely used materials in each category. This is due to their accessible monomers, easy synthesis and excellent properties. Therefore, the combination of these materials produces composites which show enhanced properties and also synergy between the cPAM properties (e.g., elasticity) and those of PANIs (e.g., conductivity). The most common way to produce the composites is to form the gel by radical polymerization (usually by redox initiators) then incorporate the PANIs into the network by oxidative polymerization of anilines. It is often claimed that the product is a semi-interpenetrated network (s-IPN) made of linear PANIs penetrating the cPAM network. However, there is evidence that the nanopores of the hydrogel become filled with PANIs nanoparticles, producing a composite. On the other hand, swelling the cPAM in true solutions of PANIs macromolecules renders s-IPN with different properties. Technological applications of the composites have been developed, such as photothermal (PTA)/electromechanical actuators, supercapacitors, movement/pressure sensors, etc. PTA devices rely on the absorption of electromagnetic radiation (light, microwaves, radiofrequency) by PANIs, which heats up the composite, triggering the phase transition of a thermosensitive cPAM. Therefore, the synergy of properties of both polymers is beneficial.

Micro-/Nano-Carboxymethyl Cellulose as a Promising Biopolymer with Prospects in the Agriculture Sector: A Review

The increase in the population rate has increased the demand for safe and quality food products. However, the current agricultural system faces many challenges in producing vegetables and fruits. Indiscriminate use of pesticides and fertilizers, deficiency of water resources, short shelf life of products postharvest, and nontargeted delivery of agrochemicals are the main challenges. In this regard, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is one of the most promising materials in the agriculture sector for minimizing these challenges due to its mechanical strength, viscosity, wide availability, and edibility properties. CMC also has high water absorbency; therefore, it can be used for water deficiency (as superabsorbent hydrogels). Due to the many hydroxyl groups on its surface, this substance has high efficacy in removing pollutants, such as pesticides and heavy metals. Enriching CMC coatings with additional substances, such as antimicrobial, antibrowning, antioxidant, and antisoftening materials, can provide further novel formulations with unique advantages. In addition, the encapsulation of bioactive materials or pesticides provides a targeted delivery system. This review presents a comprehensive overview of the use of CMC in agriculture and its applications for preserving fruit and vegetable quality, remediating agricultural pollution, preserving water sources, and encapsulating bioactive molecules for targeted delivery.

Molecular Dynamics-Assisted Design of High Temperature-Resistant Polyacrylamide/Poloxamer Interpenetrating Network Hydrogels

Polyacrylamide has promising applications in a wide variety of fields. However, conventional polyacrylamide is prone to hydrolysis and thermal degradation under high temperature conditions, resulting in a decrease in solution viscosity with increasing temperature, which limits its practical effect. Herein, combining molecular dynamics and practical experiments, we explored a facile and fast mixing strategy to enhance the thermal stability of polyacrylamide by adding common poloxamers to form the interpenetrating network hydrogel. The blending model of three synthetic polyacrylamides (cationic, anionic, and nonionic) and poloxamers was first established, and then the interaction process between them was simulated by all-atom molecular dynamics. In the results, it was found that the hydrogen bonding between the amide groups on all polymers and the oxygen-containing groups (ether and hydroxyl groups) on poloxamers is very strong, which may be the key to improve the high temperature resistance of the hydrogel. Subsequent rheological tests also showed that poloxamers can indeed significantly improve the stability and viscosity of nonionic polyacrylamide containing only amide groups at high temperatures and can maintain a high viscosity of 3550 mPa·S at 80 °C. Transmission electron microscopy further showed that the nonionic polyacrylamide/poloxamer mixture further formed an interpenetrating network structure. In addition, the Fourier transform infrared test also proved the existence of strong hydrogen bonding between the two polymers. This work provides a useful idea for improving the properties of polyacrylamide, especially for the design of high temperature materials for physical blending.

Development of hydrogel based on Carboxymethyl cellulose/poly(4-vinylpyridine) for controlled releasing of fertilizers

A novel Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and poly (4-vinylpyridine) (P4VP) hydrogel system is synthesized with different ratios, in the presence of cross-linker N, N,- methylene bis-acrylamide (MBA). The hydrogel is characterized via FTIR spectroscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The FTIR results showed a strong interaction between both CMC, P4VP and the loaded fertilizer. The water uptake of the hydrogel was evaluated by swelling tests under variations in pH, biodegradability was investigated in soil to simulate real-world conditions. To determine the best release behavior of urea and calcium nitrate from the hydrogel, fertilizers were loaded with different ratios onto the hydrogel during its formation. Fertilizers release was followed by Atomic absorption spectroscopy to study the release of calcium nitrate and urea. Release kinetic parameters were obtained based on different mathematical models as Zero order, First order, Korsmeyer-Peppas and Higuchi models. The suitable proportionality between the mathematical models used and the fertilizers release was determined based on the correlation coefficients (R2). According to Zero order model urea release showed independent concentration. Based on Korsmeyer-Pappas and Higuchi models with high n value and R2 equals to 0.97. Compared to urea, Ca2+, Zero order and Higuchi have been ignored due to their poor correlation coefficients values as proportion with Ca2+ fertilizer release.

Application of Water Hyacinth Biomass (Eichhornia crassipes) as an Adsorbent for Methylene Blue Dye from Aqueous Medium: Kinetic and Isothermal Study

Water pollution has generated the need to develop technologies to remove industrial pollutants. Adsorption has been recognized as one of the most effective techniques for effluent remediation. In this study, parts (stem and leaves) of a problematic aquatic weed, the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), were separated to produce a bioadsorbent. The objective was to evaluate the adsorption of a cationic dye, methylene blue (MB), in an aqueous solution of the biomass from different parts of the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) plants. The materials were characterized through techniques of infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometry, and thermogravimetric analysis, before and after the material adsorption. Water hyacinth biomasses presented adsorption capacity above 89%, and the kinetics was faster for stem biomass. The kinetic study found that the adsorption process is better described by the pseudo-second-order model, and the adjustments of the isotherm experimental data indicated that both materials are favorable for adsorption. Therefore, water hyacinth bioadsorbent represents a renewable resource with potential for effluent treatment.

Nanocomposite Hydrogel Produced from PEGDA and Laponite for Bone Regeneration

Herein, a nanocomposite hydrogel was produced using laponite and polyethylene-glycol diacrylate (PEGDA), with or without Irgacure (IG), for application in bone tissue regeneration. The nanocomposites were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and thermal analysis (TG/DTG). The XRD results showed that the crystallographic structure of laponite was preserved in the nanocomposite hydrogels after the incorporation of PEGDA and IG. The FTIR results indicated that PEGDA polymer chains were entangled on laponite in hydrogels. The TG/DTG found that the presence of laponite (Lap) improved the thermal stability of nanocomposite hydrogel. The toxicity tests by Artemia salina indicated that the nanocomposite hydrogels were not toxic, because the amount of live nauplii was 80.0%. In addition, in vivo tests demonstrated that the hydrogels had the ability to regenerate bone in a bone defect model of the tibiae of osteopenic rats. For the nanocomposite hydrogel (PEGDA + Lap nanocomposites + UV light), the formation of intramembranous bone in the soft callus was more intense in 66.7% of the animals. Thus, the results presented in this study evidence that nanocomposite hydrogels obtained from laponite and PEGDA have the potential for use in bone regeneration.

Synthesis, classification and properties of hydrogels: their applications in drug delivery and agriculture

Absorbent polymers or hydrogel polymer materials have an enhanced water retention capacity and are widely used in agriculture and medicine. The controlled release of bioactive molecules (especially drug proteins) by hydrogels and the encapsulation of living cells are some of the active areas of drug discovery research. Hydrogel-based delivery systems may result in a therapeutically advantageous outcome for drug delivery. They can provide various sequential therapeutic agents including macromolecular drugs, small molecule drugs, and cells to control the release of molecules. Due to their controllable degradability, ability to protect unstable drugs from degradation and flexible physical properties, hydrogels can be used as a platform in which various chemical and physical interactions with encapsulated drugs for controlled release in the system can be studied. Practically, hydrogels that possess biodegradable properties have aroused greater interest in drug delivery systems. The original three-dimensional structure gets broken down into non-toxic substances, thus confirming the excellent biocompatibility of the gel. Chemical crosslinking is a resource-rich method for forming hydrogels with excellent mechanical strength. But in some cases the crosslinker used in the synthesis of the hydrogels may cause some toxicity. However, the physically cross-linked hydrogel preparative method is an alternative solution to overcome the toxicity of cross-linkers. Hydrogels that are responsive to stimuli formed from various natural and synthetic polymers can show significant changes in their properties under external stimuli such as temperature, pH, light, ion changes, and redox potential. Stimulus-responsive hydrogels have a wider range of applications in biomedicine including drug delivery, gene delivery and tissue regeneration. Stimulus-responsive hydrogels loaded with multiple drugs show controlled and sustained drug release and can act as drug carriers. By integrating stimulus-responsive hydrogels, such as those with improved thermal responsiveness, pH responsiveness and dual responsiveness, into textile materials, advanced functions can be imparted to the textile materials, thereby improving the moisture and water retention performance, environmental responsiveness, aesthetic appeal, display and comfort of textiles. This review explores the stimuli-responsive hydrogels in drug delivery systems and examines super adsorbent hydrogels and their application in the field of agriculture.