Nanomaterials: Synthesis and Applications in Theranostics

Key Insights on the Classification and Theranostic Applications of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast Agents

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive molecular imaging tool being extensively employed in clinical and biomedical research for the detection of a broad spectrum of diseases. This technique offers remarkable spatial resolution, good tissue penetration and a high soft tissue contrast. Contrast agents (CAs) have been regularly used in MRI tests to enhance the resolution of MR images and to visualize the diseased sites in the body. In the past years, considerable efforts have been devoted towards developing new theranostic MRI agents that can be tailored to integrate the targeting and therapeutic functions in a single agent. In this review, we have underlined the role of the MRI CAs in the developing field of 'theranostics' and their recent applications in the combined imaging and therapy of different types of tumors. In addition, this review also outlines the different categories of MRI CAs and their comprehensive classification based on different criteria such as chemical composition, relaxation mechanism and biodistribution with clinically relevant examples.

Biosynthesis, characterization, magnetic hyperthermia, and in vitro toxicity evaluation of quercetin-loaded magnetoliposome lipid bilayer hybrid system on MCF-7 breast cancer

Novel biocompatible and effective hyperthermia (HT) treatment materials for breast cancer therapeutic have recently attracting researchers, because of their effective ablation of cancer cells and negligible damage to healthy cells. Magnetoliposome (MLs) have numerous possibilities for utilize in cancer treatment, including smart drug delivery (SDD) mediated through alternating magnetic fields (AMF). In this work, magnesium ferrite (MgFe2O4) encapsulated with liposomes lipid bilayer (MLs), Quercetin (Q)-loaded MgFe2O4@Liposomes (Q-MLs) nano-hybrid system were successfully synthesized for magnetic hyperthermia (MHT) and SDD applications. The hybrid system was well-investigated by different techniques using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), Vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), Transmission electron microscope (TEM), and Zeta Potential (ZP). The characterization results confirmed the improving quercetin-loading on the MLs surface. TEM analysis indicated the synthesized MgFe2O4, MLs, and Q-MLs were spherical with an average size of 23.7, 35.5, and 329.5 nm, respectively. The VSM results revealed that the MgFe2O4 exhibit excellent and effective saturation magnetization (MS) (40.5 emu/g). Quercetin drug loading and entrapment efficiency were found to be equal to 2.1 ± 0.1% and 42.3 ± 2.2%, respectively. The in-vitro Q release from Q-loaded MLs was found 40.2% at pH 5.1 and 69.87% at pH 7.4, verifying the Q-loading pH sensitivity. The MLs and Q-MLs hybrid system as MHT agents exhibit specific absorption rate (SAR) values of 197 and 205 W/g, correspondingly. Furthermore, the Q-MLs cytotoxicity was studied on the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line, and the obtained data demonstrated that the Q-MLs have a high cytotoxicity effect compared to MLs and free Q.

Revisiting the smart metallic nanomaterials: advances in nanotechnology-based antimicrobials

Despite significant advancements in diagnostics and treatments over the years, the problem of antimicrobial drug resistance remains a pressing issue in public health. The reduced effectiveness of existing antimicrobial drugs has prompted efforts to seek alternative treatments for microbial pathogens or develop new drug candidates. Interestingly, nanomaterials are currently gaining global attention as a possible next-generation antibiotics. Nanotechnology holds significant importance, particularly when addressing infections caused by multi-drug-resistant organisms. Alternatively, these biomaterials can also be combined with antibiotics and other potent biomaterials, providing excellent synergistic effects. Over the past two decades, nanoparticles have gained significant attention among research communities. Despite the complexity of some of their synthesis strategies and chemistry, unrelenting efforts have been recorded in synthesizing potent and highly effective nanomaterials using different approaches. With the ongoing advancements in nanotechnology, integrating it into medical procedures presents novel approaches for improving the standard of patient healthcare. Although the field of nanotechnology offers promises, much remains to be learned to overcome the several inherent issues limiting their full translation to clinics. Here, we comprehensively discussed nanotechnology-based materials, focusing exclusively on metallic nanomaterials and highlighting the advances in their synthesis, chemistry, and mechanisms of action against bacterial pathogens. Importantly, we delve into the current challenges and prospects associated with the technology.

Signal-Amplified Nanobiosensors for Virus Detection Using Advanced Nanomaterials

Rapid diagnosis and treatment of infectious illnesses are crucial for clinical outcomes and public health. Biosensing developments enhance diagnostics at the point of care. This is superior to traditional procedures, which need centralized lab facilities, specialized personnel, and large equipment. The emerging coronavirus epidemic threatens global health and economic security. Increasing viral surveillance and regulatory actions against disease transmission necessitate rapid, sensitive testing tools for viruses. Due to their sensitivity and specificity, biosensors offer a possible reliable and quantifiable viral detection method. Current advances in genetic engineering, such as genetic alteration and material engineering, have provided several opportunities to enhance biosensors' sensitivity, selectivity, and recognition efficiency. This chapter explains biosensing techniques, biosensor varieties, and signal amplification technologies. Challenges and potential developments for viral microorganisms based on biosensors and signal amplification were also investigated.

Nanomaterials augmented bioeffects of ultrasound in cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy as a milestone in cancer treatment has made great strides in the past decade, but it is still limited by low immune response rates and immune-related adverse events. Utilizing bioeffects of ultrasound to enhance tumor immunotherapy has attracted more and more attention, including sonothermal, sonomechanical, sonodynamic and sonopiezoelectric immunotherapy. Moreover, the emergence of nanomaterials has further improved the efficacy of ultrasound mediated immunotherapy. However, most of the summaries in this field are about a single aspect of the biological effects of ultrasound, which is not comprehensive and complete currently. This review proposes the recent progress of nanomaterials augmented bioeffects of ultrasound in cancer immunotherapy. The concept of immunotherapy and the application of bioeffects of ultrasound in cancer immunotherapy are initially introduced. Then, according to different bioeffects of ultrasound, the representative paradigms of nanomaterial augmented sono-immunotherapy are described, and their mechanisms are discussed. Finally, the challenges and application prospects of nanomaterial augmented ultrasound mediated cancer immunotherapy are discussed in depth, hoping to pave the way for cancer immunotherapy and promote the clinical translation of ultrasound mediated cancer immunotherapy through the reasonable combination of nanomaterials augmented ultrasonic bioeffects.

Nanomaterials for detection of biomolecules and delivering therapeutic agents in theragnosis: A review

Nanomaterials are emerging facts used to deliver therapeutic agents in living systems. Nanotechnology is used as a compliment by implementing different kinds of nanotechnological applications such as nano-porous structures, functionalized nanomaterials, quantum dots, carbon nanomaterials, and polymeric nanostructures. The applications are in the initial stage, which led to achieving several diagnoses and therapy in clinical practice. This review conveys the importance of nanomaterials in post-genomic employment, which includes the design of immunosensors, immune assays, and drug delivery. In this view, genomics is a molecular tool containing large databases that are useful in choosing an apt molecular inhibitor such as drug, ligand and antibody target in the drug delivery process. This study identifies the expression of genes and proteins in analysis and classification of diseases. Experimentally, the study analyses the design of a disease model. In particular, drug delivery is a boon area to treat cancer. The identified drugs enter different phase trails (Trails I, II, and III). The genomic information conveys more essential entities to the phase I trials and helps to move further for other trails such as trails-II and III. In such cases, the biomarkers play a crucial role by monitoring the unique pathological process. Genetic engineering with recombinant DNA techniques can be employed to develop genetically engineered disease models. Delivering drugs in a specific area is one of the challenging issues achieved using nanoparticles. Therefore, genomics is considered as a vast molecular tool to identify drugs in personalized medicine for cancer therapy.

Therapeutic potential of lipid nanosystems for the treatment of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder. The degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain is primarily responsible for the onset of the disease. The major challenge faced in the treatment of PD is the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which impedes the delivery of therapeutics to targeted locations. To address this issue, lipid nanosystems have been used for the precise delivery of therapeutic compounds in anti-PD therapy. In this review, we will discuss the application and clinical significance of lipid nanosystem in delivering therapeutic compounds for anti-PD treatment. These medicinal compounds include ropinirole, apomorphine, bromocriptine, astaxanthin, resveratrol, dopamine, glyceryl monooleate, levodopa, N-3,4-bis(pivaloyloxy)- dopamine and fibroblast growth factor, which have significant potential to treat PD in the early stage. This review, in a nutshell, will pave the way for researchers to develop diagnostic and potential therapeutic approaches using nanomedicine to overcome the challenges posed by the BBB in delivering therapeutic compounds for PD.

Nanostructured Materials for Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering Applications

Nanotechnology and nanostructured materials for drug delivery and tissue engineering applications are relatively new field that is constantly advancing and expanding. The materials used are at the nanoscale level. Recently, great discoveries and applications have been made (Agents for use in chemotherapy, biological agents and immunotherapy agents) in the treatment of diseases in various areas. Tissue engineering is based on the regeneration and repair of damaged organs and tissues by developing biological substitutes that restore, maintain or improve the function of tissues and organs. Cells isolated from patients are used to seed 3D nanoparticles that can be synthetic or natural biomaterials. For the development of new tissue in tissue engineering, it is necessary to meet the conditions for connecting cells. This paper will present the ways of connecting cells and creating new tissues. Some recent discoveries and advances in the field of nanomedicine and the application of nanotechnology in drug delivery will be presented. Furthermore, the improvement of the effectiveness of new and old drugs based on the application of nanotechnology will be shown.

Functionalization of and through Melanin: Strategies and Bio-Applications

A unique feature of nanoparticles for bio-application is the ease of achieving multi-functionality through covalent and non-covalent functionalization. In this way, multiple therapeutic actions, including chemical, photothermal and photodynamic activity, can be combined with different bio-imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance, photoacoustic, and fluorescence imaging, in a theragnostic approach. In this context, melanin-related nanomaterials possess unique features since they are intrinsically biocompatible and, due to their optical and electronic properties, are themselves very efficient photothermal agents, efficient antioxidants, and photoacoustic contrast agents. Moreover, these materials present a unique versatility of functionalization, which makes them ideal for the design of multifunctional platforms for nanomedicine integrating new functions such as drug delivery and controlled release, gene therapy, or contrast ability in magnetic resonance and fluorescence imaging. In this review, the most relevant and recent examples of melanin-based multi-functionalized nanosystems are discussed, highlighting the different methods of functionalization and, in particular, distinguishing pre-functionalization and post-functionalization. In the meantime, the properties of melanin coatings employable for the functionalization of a variety of material substrates are also briefly introduced, especially in order to explain the origin of the versatility of melanin functionalization. In the final part, the most relevant critical issues related to melanin functionalization that may arise during the design of multifunctional melanin-like nanoplatforms for nanomedicine and bio-application are listed and discussed.

Effective drug combinations of betulinic acid and ceranib-2 loaded Zn:MnO2 doped-polymeric nanocarriers against PC-3 prostate cancer cells

The development of theranostic nanocarriers with synergistic drug combinations has received considerable attention due to their improved pharmaceutical activity. Herein, we reported an investigation about the in-vitro anticancer activity of ceranib-2 (Cer), betulinic acid (BA), and the combination of betulinic acid and ceranib-2 (BA-Cer) against PC-3 prostate cancer cells. For this purpose, first we designed a suitable nanocarrier using a novel Zn:MnO₂ nanocomposite (NCs) and gallic acid (GA)-polylactic acid (PLA)-Alginate polymeric shell with nanoscale particle size and good stability. Chemical statements, morphology, and physicochemical properties of the nanocarrier have been illuminated with advanced characterization techniques. According to the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) results, Zn:MnO₂ NCs had a spherical and monodispersed morphology with a 2.03 ± 0.67 nm diameter. Moreover, vibrating-sample magnetometer (VSM) results showed that Zn:MnO₂ had paramagnetic properties with a saturation magnetization (Ms) value of 1.136 emu/g. Additionally, the in-vitro cytotoxic effects of the single and binary drugs loaded Zn:MnO₂-doped polymeric nanocarriers against PC-3 prostate cancer cells were investigated. According to the results, there was no significant cytotoxic effect of free BA and Cer against PC-3 prostate cancer cells. However, BA/Zn:MnO₂@GA-PLA-Alginate NCs, BA-Cer/Zn:MnO₂ @GA-PLA-Alginate NCs and free BA-Cer had IC₅₀ values of 6.498, 7.351, and 18.571 μg/mL, respectively. Consequently, BA-Cer/Zn:MnO₂@GA-PLA-Alginate is a nanocarrier with good stability, enhanced drug loading and release capacity for hydrophobic drugs, as well as being used as both imaging and treatment agent due to its magnetic properties. Furthermore, BA and Cer drug combination showed great promise in prostate cancer therapy which is known to be resulted high drug resistance. We strongly believed that this work could lead to an investigation of the molecular mechanisms of BA-mediated cancer theapy.

Metal Oxides Nanoparticles: General Structural Description, Chemical, Physical, and Biological Synthesis Methods, Role in Pesticides and Heavy Metal Removal through Wastewater Treatment

Nanotechnology (NT) is now firmly established in both the private home and commercial markets. Due to its unique properties, NT has been fully applied within multiple sectors like pharmacy and medicine, as well as industries like chemical, electrical, food manufacturing, and military, besides other economic sectors. With the growing demand for environmental resources from an ever-growing world population, NT application is a very advanced new area in the environmental sector and offers several advantages. A novel template synthesis approach is being used for the promising metal oxide nanostructures preparation. Synthesis of template-assisted nanomaterials promotes a greener and more promising protocol compared to traditional synthesis methods such as sol-gel and hydrothermal synthesis, and endows products with desirable properties and applications. It provides a comprehensive general view of current developments in the areas of drinking water treatment, wastewater treatment, agriculture, and remediation. In the field of wastewater treatment, we focus on the adsorption of heavy metals and persistent substances and the improved photocatalytic decomposition of the most common wastewater pollutants. The drinking water treatment section covers enhanced pathogen disinfection and heavy metal removal, point-of-use treatment, and organic removal applications, including the latest advances in pesticide removal.

Photobiomodulation in Alzheimer's Disease-A Complementary Method to State-of-the-Art Pharmaceutical Formulations and Nanomedicine?

Alzheimer's disease (AD), as a neurodegenerative disorder, usually develops slowly but gradually worsens. It accounts for approximately 70% of dementia cases worldwide, and is recognized by WHO as a public health priority. Being a multifactorial disease, the origins of AD are not satisfactorily understood. Despite huge medical expenditures and attempts to discover new pharmaceuticals or nanomedicines in recent years, there is no cure for AD and not many successful treatments are available. The current review supports introspection on the latest scientific results from the specialized literature regarding the molecular and cellular mechanisms of brain photobiomodulation, as a complementary method with implications in AD. State-of-the-art pharmaceutical formulations, development of new nanoscale materials, bionanoformulations in current applications and perspectives in AD are highlighted. Another goal of this review was to discover and to speed transition to completely new paradigms for the multi-target management of AD, to facilitate brain remodeling through new therapeutic models and high-tech medical applications with light or lasers in the integrative nanomedicine of the future. In conclusion, new insights from this interdisciplinary approach, including the latest results from photobiomodulation (PBM) applied in human clinical trials, combined with the latest nanoscale drug delivery systems to easily overcome protective brain barriers, could open new avenues to rejuvenate our central nervous system, the most fascinating and complex organ. Picosecond transcranial laser stimulation could be successfully used to cross the blood-brain barrier together with the latest nanotechnologies, nanomedicines and drug delivery systems in AD therapy. Original, smart and targeted multifunctional solutions and new nanodrugs may soon be developed to treat AD.

A Review on Low-Dimensional Nanomaterials: Nanofabrication, Characterization and Applications

The development of modern cutting-edge technology relies heavily on the huge success and advancement of nanotechnology, in which nanomaterials and nanostructures provide the indispensable material cornerstone. Owing to their nanoscale dimensions with possible quantum limit, nanomaterials and nanostructures possess a high surface-to-volume ratio, rich surface/interface effects, and distinct physical and chemical properties compared with their bulk counterparts, leading to the remarkably expanded horizons of their applications. Depending on their degree of spatial quantization, low-dimensional nanomaterials are generally categorized into nanoparticles (0D); nanorods, nanowires, and nanobelts (1D); and atomically thin layered materials (2D). This review article provides a comprehensive guide to low-dimensional nanomaterials and nanostructures. It begins with the classification of nanomaterials, followed by an inclusive account of nanofabrication and characterization. Both top-down and bottom-up fabrication approaches are discussed in detail. Next, various significant applications of low-dimensional nanomaterials are discussed, such as photonics, sensors, catalysis, energy storage, diverse coatings, and various bioapplications. This article would serve as a quick and facile guide for scientists and engineers working in the field of nanotechnology and nanomaterials.

Nanomaterials as a Sustainable Choice for Treating Wastewater: A Review

The removal of dyes from textile effluents utilizing advanced wastewater treatment methods with high efficiency and low cost has received substantial attention due to the rise in pollutants in water. The purpose of this work is to give a comprehensive analysis of the different treatments for removing chemical dyes from textile effluents. The capability and potential of conventional treatments for the degradation of dyeing compounds in aqueous media, as well as the influence of multiple parameters, such as the pH solution, initial dye concentration, and adsorbent dose, are presented in this study. This study is an overview of the scientific research literature on this topic, including nanoreductive and nanophotocatalyst processes, as well as nanoadsorbents and nanomembranes. For the purpose of treating sewage, the special properties of nanoparticles are currently being carefully researched. The ability of nanomaterials to remove organic matter, fungus, and viruses from wastewater is another benefit. Nanomaterials are employed in advanced oxidation techniques to clean wastewater. Additionally, because of their small dimensions, nanoparticles have a wide effective area of contact. Due to this, nanoparticles' adsorption and reactivity are powerful. The improvement of nanomaterial technology will be beneficial for the treatment of wastewater. This report also offers a thorough review of the distinctive properties of nanomaterials used in wastewater treatment, as well as their appropriate application and future possibilities. Since only a few types of nanomaterials have been produced, it is also important to focus on their technological feasibility in addition to their economic feasibility. According to this study, nanoparticles (NPs) have a significant adsorption area, efficient chemical reactions, and electrical conductivity that help treat wastewater effectively.

Graphene materials: Armor against nosocomial infections and biofilm formation - A review

Graphene has revolutionized the field of energy and storage sectors. Out of the total number of nosocomial infections diagnosed all around the world, the majority of the cases (around 70%) are found to be due to the medical device or assistance utilized while treating the patient. Combating these diseases is vital as they cause a nuisance to the patients and medical practitioners. Coatings of graphene and its derivatives hold the key to the formation of special surfaces that can rupture microbial cells using their sharp edges, ultimately leading to nuclear and cellular fragmentation. Their incorporation as a whole or as a part in the hospital apparel and the medical device has aided medical practitioners to combat many nosocomial diseases. Graphene is found to be highly virulent with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against nosocomial strains and biofilm formation. Their alternate mode of action like trapping and charge transfer has also been discussed well in the present review. The various combinational forms of graphene with its conjugates as a suitable agent to combat nosocomial infections and a potential coating for newer challenges like COVID-19 infections has also been assessed in the current study. Efficiency of graphene sheets has been found to be around 89% with a reaction time as less as 3 h. Polymers with graphene seem to have a higher potency against biofilm formation. When combined with graphene oxide, silver nanoparticles provide 99% activity against nosocomial pathogens. In conclusion, this review would be a guiding light for scientists working with graphene-based coatings to unfold the potentials of this marvelous commodity to tackle the present and future pandemics to come.

Recent Advances in Silver Nanoparticles Containing Nanofibers for Chronic Wound Management

Infections are the primary cause of death from burns and diabetic wounds. The clinical difficulty of treating wound infections with conventional antibiotics has progressively increased and reached a critical level, necessitating a paradigm change for enhanced chronic wound care. The most prevalent bacterium linked with these infections is Staphylococcus aureus, and the advent of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus has posed a substantial therapeutic challenge. Most existing wound dressings are ineffective and suffer from constraints such as insufficient antibacterial activity, toxicity, failure to supply enough moisture to the wound, and poor mechanical performance. Using ineffective wound dressings might prolong the healing process of a wound. To meet this requirement, nanoscale scaffolds with their desirable qualities, which include the potential to distribute bioactive agents, a large surface area, enhanced mechanical capabilities, the ability to imitate the extracellular matrix (ECM), and high porosity, have attracted considerable interest. The incorporation of nanoparticles into nanofiber scaffolds constitutes a novel approach to “nanoparticle dressing” that has acquired significant popularity for wound healing. Due to their remarkable antibacterial capabilities, silver nanoparticles are attractive materials for wound healing. This review focuses on the therapeutic applications of nanofiber wound dressings containing Ag-NPs and their potential to revolutionize wound healing.

Nanoparticle and Nanostructure Synthesis and Controlled Growth Methods

Nanomaterials are materials with one or more nanoscale dimensions (internal or external) (i.e., 1 to 100 nm). The nanomaterial shape, size, porosity, surface chemistry, and composition are controlled at the nanoscale, and this offers interesting properties compared with bulk materials. This review describes how nanomaterials are classified, their fabrication, functionalization techniques, and growth-controlled mechanisms. First, the history of nanomaterials is summarized and then the different classification methods, based on their dimensionality (0-3D), composition (carbon, inorganic, organic, and hybrids), origin (natural, incidental, engineered, bioinspired), crystal phase (single phase, multiphase), and dispersion state (dispersed or aggregated), are presented. Then, the synthesis methods are discussed and classified in function of the starting material (bottom-up and top-down), reaction phase (gas, plasma, liquid, and solid), and nature of the dispersing forces (mechanical, physical, chemical, physicochemical, and biological). Finally, the challenges in synthesizing nanomaterials for research and commercial use are highlighted.

Electrochemical nano biosensors for the detection of extracellular vesicles exosomes: From the benchtop to everywhere?

Detection of extracellular vesicles (EVs) exosomes is a challenge to address the need for better diagnostic tests and to create a point-of-care (POC) platform that can detect, monitor and treat health conditions early to allow personalized therapies. A multidisciplinary approach is needed to address these health-related technical issues. Over the past decade, materials scientists and engineers have worked on the same platform to develop flexible, lightweight, miniaturized, and integrated POC devices for exosome detection. Therefore, exosome detection based on various nanomaterials is of particular interest. In this paper, we describe the current state of knowledge on 0D-3D nanostructured materials and present a POC-based technique for exosome detection. Finally, the challenges that need to be solved to expand their clinical application are discussed.

Carbon Graphitization: Towards Greener Alternatives to Develop Nanomaterials for Targeted Drug Delivery

Carbon nanomaterials have attracted great interest for their unique physico-chemical properties for various applications, including medicine and, in particular, drug delivery, to solve the most challenging unmet clinical needs. Graphitization is a process that has become very popular for their production or modification. However, traditional conditions are energy-demanding; thus, recent efforts have been devoted to the development of greener routes that require lower temperatures or that use waste or byproducts as a carbon source in order to be more sustainable. In this concise review, we analyze the progress made in the last five years in this area, as well as in their development as drug delivery agents, focusing on active targeting, and conclude with a perspective on the future of the field.