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Brandão ATC, State S, Costa R, Potorac P, Vázquez JA, Valcarcel J, Silva AF, Anicai L, Enachescu M, Pereira CM. Renewable Carbon Materials as Electrodes for High-Performance Supercapacitors: From Marine Biowaste to High Specific Surface Area Porous Biocarbons. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:18782-18798. [PMID: 37273638 PMCID: PMC10233711 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c00816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Waste, in particular, biowaste, can be a valuable source of novel carbon materials. Renewable carbon materials, such as biomass-derived carbons, have gained significant attention recently as potential electrode materials for various electrochemical devices, including batteries and supercapacitors. The importance of renewable carbon materials as electrodes can be attributed to their sustainability, low cost, high purity, high surface area, and tailored properties. Fish waste recovered from the fish processing industry can be used for energy applications and prioritizing the circular economy principles. Herein, a method is proposed to prepare a high surface area biocarbon from glycogen extracted from mussel cooking wastewater. The biocarbon materials were characterized using a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area analyzer to determine the specific surface area and pore size and by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, Raman analysis, attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The electrochemical characterization was performed using a three-electrode system, utilizing a choline chloride-based deep eutectic solvent (DES) as an eco-friendly and sustainable electrolyte. Optimal time and temperature allowed the preparation of glycogen-based carbon materials, with a specific surface area of 1526 m2 g-1, a pore volume of 0.38 cm3 g-1, and an associated specific capacitance of 657 F g-1 at a current density of 1 A g-1, at 30 °C. The optimal material was scaled up to a two-electrode supercapacitor using a DES-based solid-state electrolyte (SSE@DES). This prototype delivered a maximum capacitance of 703 F g-1 at a 1 A g-1 of current density, showing 75% capacitance retention over 1000 cycles, delivering the highest energy density of 0.335 W h kg-1 and power density of 1341 W kg-1. Marine waste can be a sustainable source for producing nanoporous carbon materials to be incorporated as electrode materials in energy storage devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana T.
S. C. Brandão
- Instituto
de Ciências Moleculares IMS-CIQUP, Departamento de Química
e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências
da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, Porto 4169-007, Portugal
| | - Sabrina State
- Center
for Surface Science and Nanotechnology, University Polytechnica of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei, 313, Bucharest 060042, Romania
| | - Renata Costa
- Instituto
de Ciências Moleculares IMS-CIQUP, Departamento de Química
e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências
da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, Porto 4169-007, Portugal
| | - Pavel Potorac
- Center
for Surface Science and Nanotechnology, University Polytechnica of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei, 313, Bucharest 060042, Romania
| | - José A. Vázquez
- Grupo
de Reciclado y Valorización de Materiales Residuales (REVAL), Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (IIM-CSIC), Vigo 36208, Spain
| | - Jesus Valcarcel
- Grupo
de Reciclado y Valorización de Materiales Residuales (REVAL), Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (IIM-CSIC), Vigo 36208, Spain
| | - A. Fernando Silva
- Instituto
de Ciências Moleculares IMS-CIQUP, Departamento de Química
e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências
da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, Porto 4169-007, Portugal
| | - Liana Anicai
- Center
for Surface Science and Nanotechnology, University Polytechnica of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei, 313, Bucharest 060042, Romania
- OLV
Development SRL, Brasoveni 3, Bucharest 023613, Romania
| | - Marius Enachescu
- Center
for Surface Science and Nanotechnology, University Polytechnica of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei, 313, Bucharest 060042, Romania
- Academy
of Romanian Scientists, Splaiul Independentei 54, Bucharest 050094, Romania
| | - Carlos M. Pereira
- Instituto
de Ciências Moleculares IMS-CIQUP, Departamento de Química
e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências
da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, Porto 4169-007, Portugal
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Zhou Q, Li Y, Li L, Sun N, Zhang H, Jiang J, Du T, Mo Y, Aldeen A, Xiao R, Chen Y, Wang S, Liu M, Li C, Feng X. Radiosensitization of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma by Graphene Oxide Nanosheets to Reduce Bcl-2 Level. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2023; 39:4245-4256. [PMID: 36913208 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.2c03106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
There are many treatments for nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), but none of them are very effective. Radiotherapy is used extensively in NPC treatment, but radioresistance is a major problem. Graphene oxide (GO) has been previously studied in cancer treatment, and this study is aimed to explore its role in radiosensitization of NPC. Therefore, graphene oxide nanosheets were prepared, and the relationship between GO and radioresistance was explored. The GO nanosheets were synthesized by a modified Hummers' method. The morphologies of the GO nanosheets were characterized by field-emission environmental scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The morphological changes and radiosensitivity of C666-1 and HK-1 cells with or without the GO nanosheets were observed by an inverted fluorescence microscopy and laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM). Colony formation assay and Western Blot were applied for analysis of NPC radiosensitivity. The as-synthesized GO nanosheets have lateral dimensions (sizes ∼1 μm) and exhibit a thin wrinkled two-dimensional lamellar structure with slight folds and crimped edges (thickness values ∼1 nm). C666-1 cells with the GO was significantly changed the morphology of cells postirradiation. The full field of view visualized by a microscope showed the shadow of dead cells or cell debris. The synthesized graphene oxide nanosheets inhibited cell proliferation, promoted cell apoptosis, and inhibited the expression of Bcl-2 in C666-1 and HK-1 cells but increased the level of Bax. The GO nanosheets could affect the cell apoptosis and reduce the pro-survival protein Bcl-2 related to the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway. The GO nanosheets could enhance radiosensitivity, which might be a radioactive material in NPC cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhou
- Department of Otolaryngology-head and Neck Surgery, Department of Oncology and Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
| | - Yadong Li
- Chenzhou Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Chenzhou 423000, China
| | - Liya Li
- Powder Metallurgy Research Institute, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
| | - Nianzhe Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, Hand & Microsurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
| | - Hanghao Zhang
- Department of Breast Surgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
| | - Jiahui Jiang
- Department of Otolaryngology-head and Neck Surgery, Department of Oncology and Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
| | - Tao Du
- Department of Otolaryngology-head and Neck Surgery, Department of Oncology and Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
| | - Yan Mo
- Department of Otolaryngology-head and Neck Surgery, Department of Oncology and Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
| | - Alaa Aldeen
- Department of Otolaryngology-head and Neck Surgery, Department of Oncology and Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
| | - Runsha Xiao
- Department of Gastrointestinal, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Yiting Chen
- Department of Otolaryngology-head and Neck Surgery, Department of Oncology and Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha 410013, China
| | - Shuanglian Wang
- Department of Otolaryngology-head and Neck Surgery, Department of Oncology and Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
| | - Mian Liu
- Department of Breast Surgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
| | - Chengmin Li
- Department of Otolaryngology-head and Neck Surgery, Department of Oncology and Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
- Department of Pathology and Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
| | - Xueping Feng
- Department of Otolaryngology-head and Neck Surgery, Department of Oncology and Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410008, China
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Brandão ATSC, Costa R, State S, Potorac P, Dias C, Vázquez JA, Valcarcel J, Silva AF, Enachescu M, Pereira CM. Chitins from Seafood Waste as Sustainable Porous Carbon Precursors for the Development of Eco-Friendly Supercapacitors. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:2332. [PMID: 36984217 PMCID: PMC10057302 DOI: 10.3390/ma16062332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Carbon materials derived from marine waste have been drawing attention for supercapacitor applications. In this work, chitins from squid and prawn marine wastes were used as carbon precursors for further application as electrodes for energy storage devices. Chitins were obtained through a deproteinization method based on enzymatic hydrolysis as an alternative to chemical hydrolysis as commonly presented in the literature. The obtained porous carbons were characterized using a BET surface area analyzer to determine the specific surface area and pore size, as well as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Raman spectroscopy, attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), to characterize their morphology, composition, and structure. The electrochemical characterization was performed using a glassy carbon (GC) electrode modified with marine waste-based porous carbons as the working electrode through cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic charge/discharge using ethaline, a choline chloride-based deep eutectic solvent (DES), as an eco-friendly and sustainable electrolyte. Squid and prawn chitin-based carbons presented a surface area of 149.3 m2 g-1 and 85.0 m2 g-1, pore volume of 0.053 cm3 g-1 and 0.029 cm3 g-1, and an associated specific capacitance of 20 and 15 F g-1 at 1 A g-1, respectively. Preliminary studies were performed to understand the effect of -OH groups on the chitin-based carbon surface with DES as an electrolyte, as well as the effect of aqueous electrolytes (1 mol L-1 sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and 1 mol L-1 potassium hydroxide (KOH)) on the capacitance and retention of the half-cell set up. It is provided, for the first time, the use of chitin-based carbon materials obtained through a one-step carbonization process combined with an eco-friendly DES electrolyte for potential application in energy storage devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana T. S. C. Brandão
- Instituto de Ciências Moleculares IMS-CIQUP, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Renata Costa
- Instituto de Ciências Moleculares IMS-CIQUP, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Sabrina State
- Center for Surface Science and Nanotechnology, University Polytechnica of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei, 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Pavel Potorac
- Center for Surface Science and Nanotechnology, University Polytechnica of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei, 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Catarina Dias
- Instituto de Ciências Moleculares IMS-CIQUP, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - José A. Vázquez
- Grupo de Reciclado y Valorización de Residuos (REVAL), Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (IIM-CSIC), 36208 Vigo, Spain
| | - Jesus Valcarcel
- Grupo de Reciclado y Valorización de Residuos (REVAL), Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (IIM-CSIC), 36208 Vigo, Spain
| | - A. Fernando Silva
- Instituto de Ciências Moleculares IMS-CIQUP, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Marius Enachescu
- Center for Surface Science and Nanotechnology, University Polytechnica of Bucharest, Splaiul Independentei, 313, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, Splaiul Independentei 54, 050094 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Carlos M. Pereira
- Instituto de Ciências Moleculares IMS-CIQUP, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
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Zhang C, Fu Y, Gao W, Bai T, Cao T, Jin J, Xin B. Deep Eutectic Solvent-Mediated Electrocatalysts for Water Splitting. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27228098. [PMID: 36432198 PMCID: PMC9694663 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27228098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
As green, safe, and cheap solvents, deep eutectic solvents (DESs) provide tremendous opportunities to open up attractive perspectives for electrocatalysis. In this review, the achievement of DESs in the preparation of catalysts for electrolytic water splitting is described in detail according to their roles combined with our own work. DESs are generally employed as green media, templates, and electrolytes. A large number of hydrogen bonds in DESs result in supramolecular structures which have the ability to shape the morphologies of nanomaterials and then tune their performance. DESs can also serve as reactive reagents of metal electrocatalysts through directly participating in synthesis. Compared with conventional heteroatom sources, they have the advantages of high safety and designability. The "all-in-one" transformation strategy is expected to realize 100% atomic transformation of reactants. The aim of this review is to offer readers a deeper understanding on preparing DES-mediated electrocatalysts with higher performance for water splitting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenyun Zhang
- School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Wuxi Vocational College of Science and Technology, Wuxi 214028, China
| | - Yongqi Fu
- School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Wuxi Vocational College of Science and Technology, Wuxi 214028, China
| | - Wei Gao
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, China
| | - Te Bai
- School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Wuxi Vocational College of Science and Technology, Wuxi 214028, China
| | - Tianyi Cao
- School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Wuxi Vocational College of Science and Technology, Wuxi 214028, China
| | - Jianjiao Jin
- School of Intelligent Manufacturing, Wuxi Vocational College of Science and Technology, Wuxi 214028, China
| | - Bingwei Xin
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Dezhou University, Dezhou 253023, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-13685345517
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Rensch T, Chantrain V, Sander M, Grätz S, Borchardt L. Scale-Up of Solvent-Free, Mechanochemical Precursor Synthesis for Nanoporous Carbon Materials via Extrusion. CHEMSUSCHEM 2022; 15:e202200651. [PMID: 35670243 PMCID: PMC9543152 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202200651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The mechanochemical synthesis of nitrogen-rich nanoporous carbon materials has been scaled up using an extruder. Lignin, urea, and K2 CO3 were extruded under heat and pressure to yield nanoporous carbons with up to 3500 m2 g-1 specific surface area after pyrolysis. The route was further broadened by applying different nitrogen sources as well as sawdust as a low-cost renewable feedstock to receive carbons with a C/N ratio of up to 15 depending on nitrogen source and extrusion parameters. The texture of obtained carbons was investigated by scanning electron microscopy as well as argon and nitrogen physisorption, while the chemical structure was analyzed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The received carbon was tested as a supercapacitor electrode, showing comparable performance to similar ball-mill-synthesized materials. Lastly, the space-time yield was applied to justify the use of a continuous reactor versus the ball mill.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilo Rensch
- Department of Inorganic ChemistryRuhr-Universität BochumUniversitätsstrasse 15044801BochumGermany
| | - Viviene Chantrain
- Department of Inorganic ChemistryRuhr-Universität BochumUniversitätsstrasse 15044801BochumGermany
| | - Miriam Sander
- Department of Inorganic ChemistryRuhr-Universität BochumUniversitätsstrasse 15044801BochumGermany
| | - Sven Grätz
- Department of Inorganic ChemistryRuhr-Universität BochumUniversitätsstrasse 15044801BochumGermany
| | - Lars Borchardt
- Department of Inorganic ChemistryRuhr-Universität BochumUniversitätsstrasse 15044801BochumGermany
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Krystyjan M, Khachatryan G, Khachatryan K, Krzan M, Ciesielski W, Żarska S, Szczepankowska J. Polysaccharides Composite Materials as Carbon Nanoparticles Carrier. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14050948. [PMID: 35267771 PMCID: PMC8912318 DOI: 10.3390/polym14050948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanotechnology is a dynamically developing field of science, due to the unique physical, chemical and biological properties of nanomaterials. Innovative structures using nanotechnology have found application in diverse fields: in agricultural and food industries, where they improve the quality and safety of food; in medical and biological sciences; cosmetology; and many other areas of our lives. In this article, a particular attention is focused on carbon nanomaterials, especially graphene, as well as carbon nanotubes and carbon quantum dots that have been successfully used in biotechnology, biomedicine and broadly defined environmental applications. Some properties of carbon nanomaterials prevent their direct use. One example is the difficulty in synthesizing graphene-based materials resulting from the tendency of graphene to aggregate. This results in a limitation of their use in certain fields. Therefore, in order to achieve a wider use and better availability of nanoparticles, they are introduced into matrices, most often polysaccharides with a high hydrophilicity. Such composites can compete with synthetic polymers. For this purpose, the carbon-based nanoparticles in polysaccharides matrices were characterized. The paper presents the progress of ground-breaking research in the field of designing innovative carbon-based nanomaterials, and applications of nanotechnology in diverse fields that are currently being developed is of high interest and shows great innovative potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Krystyjan
- Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Kraków, Poland;
- Correspondence: (M.K.); (G.K.); Tel.: +48-12-6624747 (M.K.); +48-12-662-48-47 (G.K.)
| | - Gohar Khachatryan
- Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Kraków, Poland;
- Correspondence: (M.K.); (G.K.); Tel.: +48-12-6624747 (M.K.); +48-12-662-48-47 (G.K.)
| | - Karen Khachatryan
- Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Marcel Krzan
- Jerzy Haber Institute of Catalysis and Surface Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, 30-239 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Wojciech Ciesielski
- Institute of Chemistry, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, 13/15 Armii Krajowej Ave., 42-200 Czestochowa, Poland; (W.C.); (S.Ż.)
| | - Sandra Żarska
- Institute of Chemistry, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa, 13/15 Armii Krajowej Ave., 42-200 Czestochowa, Poland; (W.C.); (S.Ż.)
| | - Joanna Szczepankowska
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Horticulture, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Krakow, Poland;
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Hydrogen Bond Donors Influence on the Electrochemical Performance of Composite Graphene Electrodes/Deep Eutectic Solvents Interface. ELECTROCHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/electrochem3010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of energy storage devices with better performance relies on the use of innovative materials and electrolytes, aiming to reduce the carbon footprint through the screening of low toxicity electrolytes and solvent-free electrode design protocols. The application of nanostructured carbon materials with high specific surface area, to prepare composite electrodes, is being considered as a promising starting point towards improving the power and energy efficiency of energy storage devices. Non-aqueous electrolytes synthesized using greener approaches with lower environmental impact make deep eutectic solvents (DES) promising alternatives for electrochemical energy storage and conversion applications. Accordingly, this work proposes a systematic study on the effect of the composition of DES containing a diol and an amide as HBD (hydrogen bond donor: 1,2-propylene glycol and urea), on the electrochemical performance of graphene and graphite composite electrodes/DES electrolyte interface. Glassy carbon (GC) was selected as the bare electrode material substrate to prepare the composite formulations since it provides an electrochemically reproducible surface. Gravimetric capacitance was measured for commercial graphene and commercial graphite/GC composite electrodes in contact with choline chloride, complexed with 1,2-propylene glycol, and urea as the HBD in 1:2 molar ratio. The electrochemical stability was followed by assessing the charge/discharge curves at 1, 2, and 4 A g−1. For comparison purposes, a parallel study was performed using commercial graphite. A four-fold increase in gravimetric capacitance was obtained when replacing commercial graphite (1.70 F g−1) by commercial graphene (6.19 F g−1) in contact with 1,2-propylene glycol-based DES. When using urea based DES no significant change in gravimetric capacitance was observed when commercial graphite is replaced by commercial graphene.
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