Rapid Detection of Equine Piroplasms Using Multiplex PCR and First Genetic Characterization of Theileria haneyi in Egypt

Detection of tick-borne pathogens in Rhipicephalus bursa ticks collected from the autochthonous Garrano breed of horses in Portugal

The Garrano is a semi-feral horse breed native to several mountains in the northern Iberian Peninsula. Despite being endangered, this unique breed of pony has managed to survive in the wild and continues to be selectively bred, highlighting their remarkable resilience and adaptability to harsh environments. Wildlife plays a critical role in the survival of tick vectors in their natural habitats and the transfer of tick-borne pathogens, as they can serve as reservoir hosts for many agents and amplifiers for these vectors. The semi-feral lifestyle of the Garrano horses makes them particularly vulnerable to exposure to numerous tick species throughout the year. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Babesia, Theileria, and spotted fever rickettsiae in the Garrano horse ticks to obtain a knowledge of circulating agents in this host population. The collected ticks (n = 455) were identified as Rhipicephalus bursa. DNA specimens were organized in pools of 5 ticks, for molecular screening. Pools PCR results confirmed the presence of Candidatus Rickettsia barbariae (n = 12 for the ompB gene, n = 11 for the ompA gene and n = 6 for the gltA gene), Babesia bigemina (n = 1), Babesia caballi (n = 3), Theileria equi (n = 15) and Theileria haneyi (n = 1).These results confirm the circulation of an emerging rickettsial spotted fever group member, Candidatus R. barbariae, in R. bursa ticks. Our findings demonstrated that Candidatus R. barbariae co-circulates with B. bigemina and T. equi, which are vectored by R. bursa. We are reporting for the first time, the detection of T. haneyi among R. bursa ticks feeding in the Garrano horses in Portugal. Surveillance studies for tick-borne infections are essential to provide information that can facilitate the implementation of preventive and control strategies.

Molecular detection of tick-borne piroplasmids in camel blood samples collected from Cairo and Giza governorates, Egypt

Piroplasmosis, a tick-borne disease affecting livestock, including camels, is caused by intracellular apicomplexan parasites belonging to the order Piroplasmida. Despite its importance, there's limited research on piroplasmosis among Egyptian camels. This study aimed to fill this gap by investigating tick-borne piroplasmids in camels from Cairo and Giza Governorates. Out of 181 blood samples collected between October 2021 and March 2022 from apparently healthy one-humped camels (Camelus dromedarius), PCR assays revealed a 41.4 % infection rate with various piroplasmids. Detected species included B. bovis (17.7 %), B. bigemina (12.2 %), B. caballi (8.3 %), B. naoakii (11.6 %), B. microti (1.7 %), T. equi (4.4 %), and Theileria spp. (28.7 %). Phylogenetic analysis revealed the first detection of T. equi genotype E in Egypt and identified a novel B. caballi genotype. Additionally, B. microti isolates were identified as the US-type. These findings shed lights on piroplasmosis among Egyptian camels, and provide valuable information for devising effective control strategies, especially B. microti, a pathogen with potential human health risks.

Impact of Equine and Camel Piroplasmosis in Egypt: How Much Do We Know about the Current Situation?

Piroplasmosis is a global tick-borne disease caused by hemoprotozoan parasites, which causes high morbidity and substantial economic losses in farm animals. Equine and camel piroplasmosis causes significant losses worldwide and in Egypt. The multifactorial effects and overall impact of equine and camel piroplasmosis in Egypt remain poorly characterized. However, several Babesia and Theileria spp. as well as potential tick vectors affecting these two species have been identified in the country. Equine and camel piroplasmosis has been reported by all governates in the country. Thus, in this work, we intend to provide a broad depiction of the current approaches used for diagnosis and control and the impact of piroplasmosis on the equine and camel industries in Egypt. We also identified current gaps in knowledge that might help develop future research efforts towards improved intervention and control of equine and camel piroplasmosis. It is important to develop specific diagnostic tools suitable for the early and chronic diagnosis of this disease. Altogether, the current situation warrants the development of large-scale epidemiological studies in order to obtain an accurate estimate for equine and camel piroplasmosis to secure the highly needed food resources in the country.

Moringa oleifera as a Natural Alternative for the Control of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Equines: A Review

Studies have shown a wide variety of parasites that infect horses, causing major gastrointestinal damage that can lead to death, and although the main method of control has been synthetic anthelmintics, there are parasites that have developed resistance to these drugs. For generations, plants have been used throughout the world as a cure or treatment for countless diseases and their symptoms, as is the case of Moringa oleifera, a plant native to the western region. In all its organs, mainly in leaves, M. oleifera presents a diversity of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, tannins, phenolic acids, saponins, and vitamins, which provide antioxidant power to the plant. The compounds with the greatest antiparasitic activity are tannins and saponins, and they affect both the larvae and the oocytes of various equine gastrointestinal parasites. Therefore, M. oleifera is a promising source for the natural control of gastrointestinal parasites in horses.

Identifying 3rd larval stages of common strongylid and non-strongylid nematodes (class: Nematoda) infecting Egyptian equines based on morphometric analysis

Strongylid and non-strongylid nematodes are one of the most important parasites infecting equines. The traditional method to identify these nematodes is through coproscopy and fecal culture. Because of the scarcity of data published in Egypt discussing the morphometric features of infective 3^rd larvae of these nematodes, this study aims to provide a morphometric key for L3 of common strongylid and non-strongylid nematodes infecting Egyptian equines. For this reason, we cultured fecal samples containing GINs eggs and 3^rd larval stages were identified based on their morphology (i.e., shape and number of intestinal cells (IC), shape of the esophagus, and shape of the tail sheath) in addition to computing their dimensions (i.e., length of larvae with sheath, length of the esophagus, length of intestinal cells, and body breadth). We identified 3^rd larval stages of four strongylid nematodes (Cyathostomum sensu lato, Strongylus vulgaris, Strongylus equinus, and Strongylus edentatus) as well as two non-strongylid nematodes (Strongyloides westeri, and Trichostrongylus axei). Statistically, our results revealed significant differences in terms of total length, body width, esophagus length, and gut length among 3^rd larvae identified in the current study. The combination of both morphological and metric keys will allow the better identification of common strongylid and non-strongylid nematodes infecting equines.

Theileria equi in the horses of Iran: Molecular detection, genetic diversity, and hematological findings

In all equids worldwide, Theileria equi and Babesia caballi are believed to be two important erythrocytic protozoa that cause equine piroplasmosis. In addition, it was recently discovered that Theileria haneyi is another potential equine piroplasmosis (EP) agent. Ixodid ticks are the major vectors of these parasites. Equine piroplasmosis is of international importance and affects enormously the equine industry. In this study, for the first time, molecular prevalence and genetic diversity of piroplasma parasites (T. equi and B. caballi) in horses from Fars province (south of Iran) were determined. Also, hematological alterations of naturally infected horses were analyzed. PCR positive horses showed anemia, thrombocytopenia, leukocytosis with a left shift of neutrophilia, and monocytosis. PCR results revealed that, from 133 blood samples of horses, 40 samples were positive (30.07%). The occurrence of T. equi in this area (30.07%) was more than the national average prevalence of T. equi (24.11%), but B. caballi prevalence in study area (0%) was less than the average of previous studies in Iran (5.47%). Our findings revealed that the T. equi was widespread in Fars province of Iran. PCR products of 18S rDNA and EMA-1 genes of T. equi strains were sequenced successfully. All 18S rDNA sequences collected in this experiment revealed 100% similarity together. According to the phylogenetic tree constructed using the 18S rDNA gene, Iranian T. equi is clustered with strains from Cuba (KY111762, KY111761) and USA (CP001669, JX177672). So, this could be concluded that T. equi studied in this research, and those strains are initiated from a common T. equi ancestor at an unknown time ago. Also, the phylogenetic tree based on EMA-1 gene demonstrated a genetically diverse population of Iranian T. equi strains (10 different genotypes). As EMA-1 is one of the most immunogenic antigens in this parasite, such variability could be a concern about the efficacy of T. equi vaccines. Finally, more studies on equine piroplasmosis in the provinces of the southern region of Iran are recommended to create a better vision of disease in this region.

Tick-borne diseases in Egypt: A one health perspective

Background

Ticks are important arthropod vectors that transmit pathogens to humans and animals. Owing to favourable climatic and environmental conditions, along with animal importation from neighbouring countries, ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) are widespread in Egyptian localities. Here, we review the current knowledge on the epidemiology of TBDs in Egypt in light of the One Health paradigm.

Methods and results

Five scientific databases, including "Web of Science", "Scopus", "PubMed", "Science Direct", and "Google Scholar", were searched for articles describing TBDs in Egypt. A total of 18 TBDs have been reported in humans and animals, including three protozoal diseases (babesiosis, theileriosis, and hepatozoonosis), 12 bacterial diseases (anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, Lyme borreliosis, bovine borreliosis, tick-borne relapsing fever, Mediterranean spotted fever, African tick-borne fever, lymphangitis-associated rickettsiosis, bartonellosis, tularaemia, Q fever, and aegyptianellosis), and three viral diseases (Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, Alkhurma haemorrhagic fever, and Lumpy skin disease).

Conclusions

Despite the circulation of zoonotic tick-borne pathogens among livestock and tick vectors, human infections have been overlooked and are potentially limited to infer the actual communicable disease burden. Therefore, facility-based surveillance of TBDs, combined with capacity building for laboratory diagnostics in healthcare facilities, is urgently required to improve diagnosis and inform policy-making in disease prevention. Additionally, collaboration between expert researchers from various disciplines (physicians, biologists, acarologists, and veterinarians) is required to develop advanced research projects to control ticks and TBDs. Considering that domestic livestock is integral to many Egyptian households, comprehensive epidemiological studies on TBDs should assess all disease contributors, including vertebrate hosts (animals, humans, and rodents) and ticks in the same ecological region, for better assessment of disease burden. Additionally, upscaling of border inspections of imported animals is required to stop crossover movements of ticks and TBDs.

Seroprevalence of Anti-Theileria equi Antibodies in Horses from Three Geographically Distinct Areas of Romania

Equine piroplasmosis (EP) is an endemic tick-borne disease found in most countries around the world. It affects all species of Equidae, and it is caused by Theileria equi, Babesia caballi and T. haneyi. The research herein is the second study on the prevalence of piroplasms in Romania conducted in the past two decades. The aim of this study was to assess the seroprevalence of anti-Theileria equi antibodies and the geographical distribution of this disease in the southwest, west, and northwest regions of Romania in order to obtain a more thorough understanding of the parasitological status of horses in this country. This study included 522 apparently healthy, mixed-breed horses from three different counties. The serum samples were analysed using the cELISA Theileria equi Antibody Test Kit. The overall seroprevalence rate was 12.84%. From the total number of positive horses, 13.96% were females and 11.21% were males. Based on the distribution of positive cases into age groups, the following values were obtained: 0−60 months: 16.26%, 60−180 months: 10.03%, and >180 months: 15.83%. There was no statistically significant difference between samples, based on age or gender. The positivity percentage in the localities included in the study ranged from 8.33 to 100%. In the population under study, the seroprevalence rate was high, indicating a possible exposure risk in this area of Romania, which could have severe effects on equids in the case of clinical manifestations of the disease. EP represents a serious threat for equine health in Romania; therefore, close and continuous monitoring of the situation is required.

Development of Nested PCR and Duplex Real-Time Fluorescence Quantitative PCR Assay for the Simultaneous Detection of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi

Equine piroplasmosis (EP) is a type of blood protozoan disease caused by tick-borne parasites, Theileria equi (T. equi), Babesia caballi (B. caballi) and Theileria haneyi. While many studies have been conducted on EP diagnosis, diagnostic methods exhibiting high sensitivity and specificity remain lacking. Therefore, nested PCR (nPCR) and duplex real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (qPCR) that can simultaneously detect both T. equi and B. caballi causing agents were established and compared. The two techniques were used to analyze 36 horse blood samples for EP. This set of samples was also detected by a multinested PCR (mnPCR) targeting the EMA-1 gene of T. equi and the RAP-1 gene of B. caballi. By nPCR, duplex real-time fluorescence qPCR and mnPCR, infections with B. caballi were detected in 16.67% (6/36), 2.78% (1/36), 19.44% (7/36) of the horses, respectively. The T. equi prevalence was 58.33% (21/36) by the nPCR, 33.33% (12/36) by the duplex real-time fluorescence qPCR and 2.78% (1/36) by the mnPCR. The overall prevalence of infection with mixed parasites by nPCR was 5.56% (2/36), by duplex real-time fluorescence qPCR was 2.78% (1/36) and by mnPCR 0% (0/36). Results suggest that nPCR can detect T. equi and B. caballi positive samples with good specificity and sensitivity, although distinguishing between the two parasites requires an electrophoresis with 4% agarose gels. The duplex real-time fluorescence qPCR can readily distinguish between T. equi and B. caballi infection, but with low sensitivity.

Molecular characterization of some equine vector-borne diseases and associated arthropods in Egypt

Equine vector-borne diseases (EVBDs) are emerging and re-emerging diseases, and most of them are zoonotic. This study aimed to investigate EVBDs in equines and associated arthropods (ticks and flies) from Egypt using molecular analyses, in addition to a preliminary characterization of associated ticks and flies by the matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF) and molecular techniques. In this study, 335 blood samples were obtained from equines that appeared to be in good health (320 horses and 15 donkeys) in Cairo and Beni Suef provinces, Egypt. From the same animals, 166 arthropods (105 sucking flies and 61 ticks) were collected. Ticks and flies were preliminary characterized by the MALDI-TOF and molecular tools. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) and standard PCR coupled with sequencing were performed on the DNA of equines, ticks, and flies to screen multiple pathogens. The MALDI-TOF and molecular characterization of arthropods revealed that louse fly (Hippobosca equina) and cattle tick (Rhipicephalus annulatus) infesting equines. Anaplasma platys-like (1.6%), Anaplasma marginale (1.6%), Candidatus Ehrlichia rustica (6.6%), a new Ehrlichia sp. (4.9%), and Borrelia theileri (3.3%) were identified in R. annulatus. Anaplasma sp. and Borrelia sp. DNAs were only detected in H. equina by qPCR. A. marginale, Anaplasma ovis, and Theileria ovis recorded the same low infection rate (0.6%) in donkeys, while horses were found to be infected with Theileria equi and a new Theileria sp. Africa with recorded prevalence rates of 1.2% and 2.7%, respectively. In conclusion, different pathogens were first detected such as A. platys-like, Candidatus E. rustica, and a new Ehrlichia sp. in R. annulatus; A. marginale, A. ovis, and T. ovis in donkeys; and a new Theileria sp. "Africa" in horses.