Zoonotic and Public Health Implications of Campylobacter Species and Squamates (Lizards, Snakes and Amphisbaenians)

Study of Zoonotic Pathogens in Alien Population of Veiled Chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) in the Canary Islands (Spain)

Veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus) are native to the Arabian Peninsula that have been introduced as pets in many regions around the world, such as the Canary Islands (Spain). In this work, the gastrointestinal content from veiled chameleons of Gran Canaria island (Canary Islands) has been analyzed to determine the presence of zoonotic bacteria. Forty animals were analyzed using different selective culture media and PCR. The most isolated bacteria were Yersinia enterocolitica (52.4%), followed by Salmonella spp. (40.0%), with positive isolates for Salmonella Tyhpi and Salmonella Typhimurium. Pseudomonas spp. was found in 32.5% of the chameleons. More than half were positive for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus spp. was detected in six animals plus one isolate of non-resistant Staphylococcus hominis. Multiple mycobacteria species belonging to both tuberculous and non-tuberculous complexes were identified as well as Escherichia coli carrying the stx₁ and eae virulence genes with 12.5% and 7.5% prevalence, respectively. Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter spp., and Vibrio spp. were found in lower proportion (<5%). The results obtained indicate that veiled chameleons in Gran Canaria could be playing a role in the maintenance and dissemination of the pathogens detected, harming public health and biodiversity.

A Systematic Review on the Role of Wildlife as Carriers and Spreaders of Campylobacter spp

Campylobacter spp. are important zoonotic pathogens and can cause one of the main bacterial diarrheal diseases worldwide. Research in the context of infection arising from transmission from other humans and other vertebrates has been extensive. A large fraction of these investigations has focused on domestic animals; however, there are also a number of publications which either totally, or at least in part, consider the role of wild or feral animals as carriers or spreaders of Campylobacter spp. Here, we carry out a systematic review to explore the role played by wild vertebrates as sources of Campylobacter spp. with a compilation of prevalence data for more than 150 species including reptiles, mammals and birds. We found that numerous vertebrate species can act as carriers of Campylobacter species, but we also found that some host specificity may exist, reducing the risk of spread from wildlife to domestic animals or humans.

Novel strains of Campylobacter cause diarrheal outbreak in Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) of Kathmandu Valley

Campylobacter spp. is often underreported and underrated bacteria that present real health risks to both humans and animals, including non-human primates. It is a commensal microorganism of gastrointestinal tract known to cause gastroenteritis in humans. Commonly found in many wild animals including non-human primates (monkeys- Rhesus macaques) these pathogens are known to be a common cause of diarrhea in humans in many parts of developing and under developed countries. Rhesus macaques from the two holy sites in Kathmandu (Pashupati and Swoyambhu) were included in this cross-sectional study. Diarrheal samples of monkeys were analyzed to detect and characterize the pathogen using 16S rRNA-based PCR screening, followed by DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Out of a total 67 collected diarrheal samples, Campylobacter spp. were detected in the majority of the samples (n = 64; 96%). DNA sequences of the amplified PCR products were successfully obtained from 13 samples. Phylogenetic analysis identified Candidatus Campylobacter infans (n = 10, Kimura-2 parameter (K2P) pairwise distance values of 0.002287). Remaining three sequences might potentially belong to a novel Campylobacter species/sub-species- closely relating to known species of C. helviticus (K2P pairwise distance of 0.0267). Both Candidatus Campylobacter infans and C. helvitucus are known to infect humans and animals. Additionally, we also detected the bacteria in water and soil samples from the sites. Campylobacter spp. caused the 2018 diarrhea outbreak in Rhesus macaques in the Kathmandu valley. Campylobacter might be one of the important contributing pathogens in diarrheal outbreaks-both in humans and animals (monkeys) in Nepal. Due to close interactions of these animals with humans and other animals, One Health approach might be the most effective way to prevent and mitigate the threat posed by this pathogen.

Zoonotic Bacteria in Anolis sp., an Invasive Species Introduced to the Canary Islands (Spain)

Lizards belonging to the genus Anolis are native to America and have been introduced in many parts of the world. In this work, a gastrointestinal microbiological analysis from Anolis sp. introduced to Tenerife, Canary Island, was carried out. A total of 74 individuals were analyzed by culture and molecular tools. Pseudomonas spp. was the most prevalent bacteria isolated (64.3%), followed by enteropathogenic Escherichia coli with at least one of the investigated virulent genes (stx₁, stx₂, and eae) (44.6%). The stx₂ gene was more prevalent which differs to that reported in other reptiles, probably due to wastewater transmission. Campylobacter spp. was detected in 32.4% of the animals, highlighting the detection of C. jejuni and C. fetus by their relevance to public health. The zoonotic Staphylococcus lugdunensis, found in 14.9% of the animals, was firstly detected in reptiles. Vibrio sp. which is more associated with aquatic environments was found in 10.8% of the lizards in this study, with Vibrio cholerae being found in two of the animals. The prevalence of Salmonella sp. (5.4%) was low, compared with other studies carried out in reptiles. These results indicate that Anolis sp. in Tenerife could be playing a role in the maintenance and spread of the pathogens detected, being a possible risk factor for public health and biodiversity conservation.

Isolation, identification and antibiotic resistance profile of thermophilic Campylobacter species from Bovine, Knives and personnel at Jimma Town Abattoir, Ethiopia

Thermophilic Campylobacter species are common cause of animal and human bacterial diseases with growing resistance to antimicrobials. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of Campylobacter species from bovine, knives and personnel in Jimma Town, Ethiopia. Faecal samples and carcasses swabs were collected from cattle systematically selected from the annual plan of Jimma Municipal Abattoir. Personnel hand and knife swabs were collected after slaughtering each selected cattle. A cross-sectional study with systematic sampling method was conducted from October 2019 to September 2020 for the isolation, identification and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of thermophilic Campylobacter species. Isolation and identification of Campylobacter species were performed according to the techniques recommended by the International Organization for Standardization, and in vitro antibiotic susceptibility testing was screened using the standard agar disc diffusion method as recommended by Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institutions. A total of 684 samples (171 samples from faeces, carcasses, knives and personnel hands, were collected independently). The overall prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacterspecies was 5.6% (38/684). Majority of the isolates were from faecal samples (12.9%, n = 22) followed by carcass swabs(4.1% n = 7), knife swabs(3.5% n = 6) and personnel hand swabs(1.8% n = 3). Isolated and identified species of C.jejuni, C. coli and C. lari accounted for 63.2%, 23.7% and 13.2%, respectively. The isolated Campylobacter species were found to be resistant to Cephalothin (100%), Ampicillin (60.5%), Cefotaxime (60.5%), Chloramphenicol (47.4%) and Tetracycline (42.1%). On the other hand, the isolates were susceptible to Nalidixic acid (86.8%), Ciprofloxacin (86.8%), Sulphamethazole (84.2%), Ceftriaxone (78.9%), Clindamycin (68.4%) and Cefixime (65.8%). 84.2% of the isolates showed multi-drug resistance for three-to-six drug classes. All the C. lari isolates were multidrug resistant. All the three isolated species of Campylobacter were resistant to Cephalothin, and most were multidrug resistant. Isolation of Campylobacter species from faecal, carcass, knife and hand swabs revealed possible risk of contamination and exposure to Campylobacter infection of those who consume raw meat. Therefore, enactment of hygienic practices during the slaughtering process, proper handling and cooking of meat and awareness creation on jurisdictional antibiotic usage are required to avoid Campylobacter infection.

Antibiotic Resistance Profile and Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Index of Campylobacter Species Isolated from Poultry

Campylobacter is a major public health problem, leading to foodborne diarrhea in the world. The current study aimed to isolate Campylobacter in different sources of poultry and determine antimicrobial susceptibility. A total of 150 fecal and 29 cloacal swabs were obtained from poultry farms (84 cloacal swabs) and live bird markets (LBMs), respectively, and 37 cecal swabs were also acquired from a local slaughterhouse located in the middle Euphrates region. Campylobacter Species (spp.) was first isolated and characterized by conventional bacteriological methods. Secondly, the antimicrobial susceptibility of isolates was investigated by disc diffusion method. The overall prevalence of Campylobacter spp. isolated from fecal cloacal and cecal poultry samples was 24% (36 out of 150). All strains were resistant to Nalidixic acid and Ciprofloxacin (100%), with high resistance to Tetracycline (88.8%), Ampicillin (83.3%), Sulpha/Trimethoprim (80.5%), Erythromycin (50%), and Ceftriaxone (50%), but less resistant to Gentamicin (30.5%), Amoxi-Clav (27.7%), and Chloramphenicol (22.2%). The majority of isolates (97.2%) scored a multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index of 0.3 or more, and 35 (97.2%) isolates were resistant to three or more antibiotic classes. Particularly, 61.1% of the isolates were multidrug resistance (MDR), 36.1% of the isolates were extensively drug resistant, and 2.8% of the isolates were Pan drug resistant. Moreover, the current study detected 24 multiple resistance patterns from 36 isolates of Campylobacter spp., and most of the isolates (27 out of 36) displayed an important route of resistance to Nalidixic acid, Ciprofloxacin, and Tetracycline. Based on the results, increased resistance rates to commonly used antibiotics in Campylobacter were recovered from poultry farms, LBMs, and local slaughterhouses. The majority of strains were MDR to commonly used antimicrobials with elevated MAR indices, requiring implementation of a national strategy to improve husbandry practice and the effective use of antibacterial agents, alternatives, and vaccines.