Fluorescence Imaging as a Tool in Preclinical Evaluation of Polymer-Based Nano-DDS Systems Intended for Cancer Treatment

Revolutionizing Cancer Immunotherapy: Emerging Nanotechnology-Driven Drug Delivery Systems for Enhanced Therapeutic Efficacy

Cancer immunotherapy is an innovative way of treating cancer by stimulating individual cells to overcome cancer. Widespread biomedical studies were carried out with the aim of exploring immunotherapy cancer therapeutics, and this review spotlights some mechanisms in which it was developed, namely immune checkpoint inhibitors (E.G PD-1/PD-L1, CTLA-4), adoptive cell therapy (e.g., CAR T-cell therapy), and cancer vaccines. Although it has shown clinical benefit in a number of cancer types, including melanoma and non-small-cell lung cancer, several challenges have dampened enthusiasm for this approach, from the differing patient response rates to toxicities. Nanotechnology in drug delivery systems must play a role in overcoming the same. Nanotechnology enables increased specificity and controlled drug release, improved solubility and bioavailability, can treat the tumor specifically, and localized drug delivery at the disease site decreases systemic toxicity. The review also features advances in the construction of lipid-based, polymeric, and inorganic nanoparticles that improve drug stability and allow the delivery of cotherapeutic agents. Nanotechnology-based delivery systems can be used alone or in combination with immunotherapy to assist in improving the immune response, gaining access to the tumor microenvironment, and overcoming biological barriers. Thus, the nano-DDS were both safe and effective in preclinical studies, and ongoing clinical trials have shown that they are capable of increasing the therapeutic index of anticancer drugs. Lastly, the review also discusses current challenges and regulatory issues in advancing these technologies and highlights the importance of further research to devise appropriate methodology for efficient functionalization of nanotechnology for individualized cancer solutions in cancer treatment.

Reactive oxygen species responsive double-locked liposome collaborative photodynamic therapy for reducing electrical conduction recurrence after radiofrequency catheter ablation

Radiofrequency catheter ablation (RFCA) is the preferred technique for the treatment of atrial fibrillation, but the recovery of electrical conduction after ablation seriously endangers the health of patients. This study aimed to develop reactive oxygen species (ROS) responsive double-locked liposome collaborative photodynamic therapy (PDT) to target the ablation area and reduce the recovery of electrical conduction after ablation. The successful synthesis of β-cyclodextrin modified with phenylboronic acid pinacol ester (OCD) was confirmed by 1H NMR and FT-IR. Furthermore, the successful synthesis of octadecylamine-modified indocyanine green (ICG-ODA) was confirmed by 1H NMR and mass spectrometry. The ICG-ODA was encapsulated in liposomes to generate a double-locked hybrid liposome (ICG-ODA@rNP), which was subsequently characterized. Several properties of ICG-ODA@rNP were evaluated, including the drug release, targeting ability and ability to inhibit electrical conduction recurrence. Moreover, a model was constructed for the blockage of electrical conduction after RFCA in rabbits to further evaluate ICG-ODA@rNP. The preliminary safety evaluation of ICG-ODA@rNP was also performed. The ICG-ODA@rNP with a uniform particle size showed excellent storage stability. The nanoparticle can sensitively release drugs under ROS environment, and exhibits excellent photothermal effects. Furthermore, ICG-ODA@rNP can circulate for a long time in vivo and accumulate significantly in the ablation area. In a pacing test with a left atrial appendage (LAA), these nanoparticles, combined with PDT, reduced the ratio of electrical conduction recovery, which was confirmed by a hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) test. Further molecular analysis revealed that ICG-ODA@rNP could increase RFCA-induced apoptosis and ROS levels. Specifically, ICG-ODA@rNP significantly increased the expression of Bax and cleaved caspase-3, and decreased the expression of Bcl-2. In addition, the excellent biosafety of the double-locked nanoparticle was verified. This study provides evidence that ICG-ODA@rNP, with the double lock characteristic and biosafety, which exhibits a targeting effect on RFCA-induced cardiac injury areas, which further reduce electrical conduction recovery in RFCA areas by collaborativing PDT.

Biocompatible Fluorescent Graphene Oxide Quantum Dots for Imaging of Drosophila melanogaster

Developing reliable biocompatible bioimaging agents is paramount for diagnosing critical diseases and disorders early through oral ingestion of fluorescent probes to image living organisms. Here, we prepared fluorescent, water-dispersed graphene oxide quantum dots via pyrolysis of a Glycyrrhiza glabra root in the water medium using a cost-effective and environmentally benign method to enable Drosophila melanogaster, an organism analogous to the human genome, to be imaged alive. The prepared graphene oxide quantum dots demonstrated a 2.6 nm diameter and 0.36 nm graphitic spacing with carboxylic acid, carbonyl, and hydroxyl functionalities. The selected area electron diffraction image analysis reveals a series of bright circular patterns that confirm the crystalline nature of the graphene oxide quantum dots. Raman and X-ray diffraction analyses also validate the crystallinity nature of prepared materials. The graphene oxide quantum dots exhibited blue fluorescence under ultraviolet-light irradiation with excitation-dependent emission properties from blue to red emission. The synthesized graphene oxide quantum dots consistently fluoresce in the larva-fed graphene oxide quantum dots without exhibiting toxicity. The current study evaluates the toxic effect of synthesized fluorescent graphene quantum dots by examining several screening and staining methods on D. melanogaster, a fruit fly, as a model.

A Visual Raman Nano-Delivery System Based on Thiophene Polymer for Microtumor Detection

A visual Raman nano-delivery system (NS) is a widely used technique for the visualization and diagnosis of tumors and various biological processes. Thiophene-based organic polymers exhibit excellent biocompatibility, making them promising candidates for development as a visual Raman NS. However, materials based on thiophene face limitations due to their absorption spectra not matching with NIR (near-infrared) excitation light, which makes it difficult to achieve enhanced Raman properties and also introduces potential fluorescence interference. In this study, we introduce a donor-acceptor (D-A)-structured thiophene-based polymer, PBDB-T. Due to the D-A molecular modulation, PBDB-T exhibits a narrow bandgap of Eg = 2.63 eV and a red-shifted absorption spectrum, with the absorption edge extending into the NIR region. Upon optimal excitation with 785 nm light, it achieves ultra-strong pre-resonant Raman enhancement while avoiding fluorescence interference. As an intrinsically sensitive visual Raman NS for in vivo imaging, the PBDB-T NS enables the diagnosis of microtumor regions with dimensions of 0.5 mm × 0.9 mm, and also successfully diagnoses deeper tumor tissues, with an in vivo circulation half-life of 14.5 h. This research unveils the potential application of PBDB-T as a NIR excited visual Raman NS for microtumor diagnosis, introducing a new platform for the advancement of "Visualized Drug Delivery Systems". Moreover, the aforementioned platform enables the development of a more diverse range of targeted visual drug delivery methods, which can be tailored to specific regions.

Targeted cancer treatment using folate-conjugated sponge-like ZIF-8 nanoparticles: a review

ZIF-8 (zeolitic imidazolate framework-8) is a potential drug delivery system because of its unique properties, which include a large surface area, a large pore capacity, a large loading capacity, and outstanding stability under physiological conditions. ZIF-8 nanoparticles may be readily functionalized with targeting ligands for the identification and absorption of particular cancer cells, enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapeutic medicines and reducing adverse effects. ZIF-8 is also pH-responsive, allowing medication release in the acidic milieu of cancer cells. Because of its tunable structure, it can be easily functionalized to design cancer-specific targeted medicines. The delivery of ZIF-8 to cancer cells can be facilitated by folic acid-conjugation. Hence, it can bind to overexpressed folate receptors on the surface of cancer cells, which holds the promise of reducing unwanted deliveries. As a result of its importance in cancer treatment, the folate-conjugated ZIF-8 was the major focus of this review.

Recent nanotheranostic approaches in cancer research

Humanity is suffering from cancer which has become a root cause of untimely deaths of individuals around the globe in the recent past. Nanotheranostics integrates therapeutics and diagnostics to monitor treatment response and enhance drug efficacy and safety. We hereby propose to discuss all recent cancer imaging and diagnostic tools, the mechanism of targeting tumor cells, and current nanotheranostic platforms available for cancer. This review discusses various nanotheranostic agents and novel molecular imaging tools like MRI, CT, PET, SPEC, and PAT used for cancer diagnostics. Emphasis is given to gold nanoparticles, silica, liposomes, dendrimers, and metal-based agents. We also highlight the mechanism of targeting the tumor cells, and the limitations of different nanotheranostic agents in the field of research for cancer treatment. Due to the complexity in this area, multifunctional and hybrid nanoparticles functionalized with targeted moieties or anti-cancer drugs show the best feature for theranostics that enables them to work on carrying and delivering active materials to the desired area of the requirement for early detection and diagnosis. Non-invasive imaging techniques have a specificity of receptor binding and internalization processes of the nanosystems within the cancer cells. Nanotheranostics may provide the appropriate medicine at the appropriate dose to the appropriate patient at the appropriate time.

High-Load Gemcitabine Inorganic-Organic Hybrid Nanoparticles as an Image-Guided Tumor-Selective Drug-Delivery System to Treat Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) has a devastating prognosis without effective treatment options. Thus, there is an urgent need for more effective and safe therapies. Here, inorganic-organic hybrid nanoparticles (GMP-IOH-NPs) are presented as a novel drug-delivery system for the selective delivery of extraordinarily high concentrations of gemcitabine monophosphate (GMP), not only to the primary tumor but also to metastatic sites. GMP-IOH-NPs have a composition of [ZrO]2+ [GMP]2 - with GMP as drug anion (76% of total IOH-NP mass). Multiscale fluorescence imaging confirms an efficient uptake in tumor cells, independent of the activity of the human-equilibrative-nucleoside transporter (hENT1), being responsible for gemcitabine (GEM) transport into cells and a key factor for GEM resistance. Delivering already phosphorylated GMP via GMP-IOH-NPs into tumor cells also allows the cellular resistance induced by the downregulation of deoxycytidine kinase to be overcome. GMP-IOH-NPs show high accumulation in tumor lesions and only minor liver trapping when given intraperitoneally. GMP-IOH-NPs result in a higher antitumor efficacy compared to free GEM, which is further enhanced applying cetuximab-functionalized GMP-CTX-IOH-NPs. By maximizing the therapeutic benefits with high drug load, tumor-specific delivery, minimizing undesired side effects, overcoming mechanisms of chemoresistance, and preventing systemic GEM inactivation, GMP-IOH-NPs are anticipated to have a high chance to significantly improve current PDAC-patient outcome.

Styrylpyridinium Derivatives for Fluorescent Cell Imaging

A set of styrylpyridinium (SP) compounds was synthesised in order to study their spectroscopic and cell labelling properties. The compounds comprised different electron donating parts (julolidine, p-dimethylaminophenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl), conjugated linkers (vinyl, divinyl), and an electron-withdrawing N-alkylpyridinium part. Geminal or bis-compounds incorporating two styrylpyridinium (bis-SP) moieties at the 1,3-trimethylene unit were synthesised. Compounds comprising a divinyl linker and powerful electron-donating julolidine donor parts possessed intensive fluorescence in the near-infrared region (maximum at ~760 nm). The compounds had rather high cytotoxicity towards the cancerous cell lines HT-1080 and MH-22A; at the same time, basal cytotoxicity towards the NIH3T3 fibroblast cell line ranged from toxic to harmful. SP compound 6e had IC50 values of 1.0 ± 0.03 µg/mL to the cell line HT-1080 and 0.4 µg/mL to MH-22A; however, the basal toxicity LD50 was 477 mg/kg (harmful). The compounds showed large Stokes' shifts, including 195 nm for 6a,b, 240 nm for 6e, and 325 and 352 nm for 6d and 6c, respectively. The highest photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) values were observed for 6a,b, which were 15.1 and 12.2%, respectively. The PLQY values for the SP derivatives 6d,e (those with a julolidinyl moiety) were 0.5 and 0.7%, respectively. Cell staining with compound 6e revealed a strong fluorescent signal localised in the cell cytoplasm, whereas the cell nuclei were not stained. SP compound 6e possessed self-assembling properties and formed liposomes with an average diameter of 118 nm. The obtained novel data on near-infrared fluorescent probes could be useful for the development of biocompatible dyes for biomedical applications.

Time-Dependent Controlled Release of Ferulic Acid from Surface-Modified Hollow Nanoporous Silica Particles

Release of ferulic acid from surface-functionalized hollow nanoporous silica particles (HNSPs) was investigated in deionized water (DI water) and in ethanol. The host material, an HNSP, was synthesized in the presence of polymer and surfactant templates, and the pore as well as the surface were modified with either pentyltriethoxysilane (PTS) or octyltriethoxysilane (OTS) through silane coupling reactions. The inner hollow space occupied a volume of ~45% of the whole HNSP with a 2.54 nm pore channel in the wall. The pore size was estimated to decrease to 1.5 nm and 0.5 nm via the PTS and OTS functionalization, respectively. The encapsulation efficiencies of the HNSP (25 wt%), PTS-functionalized HNSP (PTS-HNSP, 22 wt%) and OTS-functionalized HNSP (OST-HNSP, 25 wt%) toward ferulic acid were similar, while the %release in DI water and ethanol varied following HNSP > PTS-HNSP > OTS-HNSP. Release kinetic analyses with Korsmeyer-Peppas fitting suggested a trade-off relationship between the solvent's ability to access the HNSP and the affinity of ferulic acid to the surface, allowing us to understand the solvent's controlled release rate and mechanism.

Fluorescent Probes as a Tool in Diagnostic and Drug Delivery Systems

Over the last few years, the development of fluorescent probes has received considerable attention. Fluorescence signaling allows noninvasive and harmless real-time imaging with great spectral resolution in living objects, which is extremely useful for modern biomedical applications. This review presents the basic photophysical principles and strategies for the rational design of fluorescent probes as visualization agents in medical diagnosis and drug delivery systems. Common photophysical phenomena, such as Intramolecular Charge Transfer (ICT), Twisted Intramolecular Charge Transfer (TICT), Photoinduced Electron Transfer (PET), Excited-State Intramolecular Proton Transfer (ESIPT), Fluorescent Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET), and Aggregation-Induced Emission (AIE), are described as platforms for fluorescence sensing and imaging in vivo and in vitro. The presented examples are focused on the visualization of pH, biologically important cations and anions, reactive oxygen species (ROS), viscosity, biomolecules, and enzymes that find application for diagnostic purposes. The general strategies regarding fluorescence probes as molecular logic devices and fluorescence–drug conjugates for theranostic and drug delivery systems are discussed. This work could be of help for researchers working in the field of fluorescence sensing compounds, molecular logic gates, and drug delivery.

Photochemical Consideration in the Interactions between Blood Proteins and Layered Inorganic Materials

Interactions between layered double hydroxide (LDH) nanomaterials and plasma proteins according to their particle size and surface charge were evaluated. The LDHs with different particle size (150, 350 and 2000 nm) were prepared by adjusting hydrothermal treatment and urea hydrolysis and subsequent organic coating with citrate, malite and serite was applied to control the surface charge (ζ-potential: −15, 6 and 36 mV). Adsorption isotherms and Stern–Volmer plots for fluorescence quenching indicated that the human blood plasma had weak interactions toward all the types of LDHs. The adsorption isotherms did not show significant differences in the size and surface charges, while the fluorescence quenching ratio increased with the increase in the surface charge, implying that electrostatic interaction played a major role in their interactions. The fluorescence quenching of three types of plasma proteins (human serum albumin, γ-globulin and fibrinogen) by the surface charge-controlled LDHs suggested that the proteins adsorbed on the LDHs with a single layer and additional proteins were weakly adsorbed to surround the LDHs with adsorbed proteins. It was concluded that the LDH nanomaterials are fairly compatible for blood components due to the protein corona while the electrostatic interaction can affect their interaction with the proteins.

FRET as the tool for in vivo nanomedicine tracking

Advanced drug delivery system utilizing a nanocarrier is the major application of nanotechnology on pharmacotherapeutics. However, despite the promising benefits and a leading trend in pharmaceutical research, nanomedicine development suffers from a poor clinical translation problem as only a handful of nanomedicine products reach the market yearly. The conventional pharmacokinetic study generally focuses only on monitoring the level of a free drug but ignores the nanocarrier's role in pharmacokinetics. One hurdle is that it is difficult to directly track intact nanocarriers in vivo to explore their pharmacokinetics. Although several imaging techniques such as radiolabeling, nuclear imaging, fluorescence imaging, etc., have been developed over the past few years, currently, one method that can successfully track the intact nanocarriers in vivo directly is by Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). This review summarizes the application of FRET as the in vivo nanoparticle tracker for studying the in vivo pharmacokinetics of the organic nanocarriers and gives elaborative details on the techniques utilized.

Coronene-based quantum dots for the delivery of the doxorubicin anticancer drug: a computational study

The coronene family could serve as a useful platform for the delivery of and tracking the release of the anticancer DOX drug.

Organic nanoparticle tracking during pharmacokinetic studies

To understand how nanoparticles (NPs) interact with biological barriers and to ensure they maintain their integrity over time, it is crucial to study their in vivo pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles. Many methods of tracking have been used to describe the in vivo fate of NPs and to evaluate their PKs and structural integrity. However, they do not deliver the same level of information and this may cause misinterpretations. Here, the authors review and discuss the different methods for in vivo tracking of organic NPs. Among them, Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) presents great potential to track NPs' integrity. However, FRET still requires validated methods to extract and quantify NPs in biological fluids and tissues.

Visualizing and quantifying antimicrobial drug distribution in tissue

The biodistribution and pharmacokinetics of drugs are vital to the mechanistic understanding of their efficacy. Measuring antimicrobial drug efficacy has been challenging as plasma drug concentration is used as a surrogate for tissue drug concentration, yet typically does not reflect that at the intended site(s) of action. Utilizing an image-guided approach, it is feasible to accurately quantify the biodistribution and pharmacokinetics within the desired site(s) of action. We outline imaging modalities used in visualizing drug distribution with examples ranging from in vitro cellular drug uptake to clinical treatment of microbial infections. The imaging modalities of interest are: radio-labeling, magnetic resonance, mass spectrometry imaging, computed tomography, fluorescence, and Raman spectroscopy. We outline the progress, limitations, and future outlook for each methodology. Further advances in these optical approaches would benefit patients and researchers alike, as non-invasive imaging could yield more profound insights with a lower clinical burden than invasive measurement approaches used today.

Dendrimers based cancer nanotheranostics: An overview

Cancer is a known deadliest disease that requires a judicious diagnostic, targeting, and treatment strategy for an early prognosis and selective therapy. The major pitfalls of the conventional approach are non-specificity in targeting, failure to precisely monitor therapy outcome, and cancer progression leading to malignancies. The unique physicochemical properties offered by nanotechnology derived nanocarriers have the potential to radically change the landscape of cancer diagnosis and therapeutic management. An integrative approach of utilizing both diagnostic and therapeutic functionality using a nanocarrier is termed as nanotheranostic. The nanotheranostics platform is designed in such a way that overcomes various biological barriers, efficiently targets the payload to the desired locus, and simultaneously supports planning, monitoring, and verification of treatment delivery to demonstrate an enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Thus, a nanotheranostic platform could potentially assist in drug targeting, image-guided focal therapy, drug release and distribution monitoring, predictionof treatment response, and patient stratification. A class of highly branched nanocarriers known as dendrimers is recognized as an advanced nanotheranostic platform that has the potential to revolutionize the oncology arena by its unique and exciting features. A dendrimer is a well-defined three-dimensional globular chemical architecture with a high level of monodispersity, amenability of precise size control, and surface functionalization. All the dendrimer properties exhibit a reproducible pharmacokinetic behavior that could ensure the desired biodistribution and efficacy. Dendrimers are thus being exploited as a nanotheranostic platform embodying a diverse class of therapeutic, imaging, and targeting moieties for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

pH-responsive intramolecular FRET-based self-tracking polymer prodrug nanoparticles for real-time tumor intracellular drug release monitoring and imaging

An intramolecular fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based macromolecular theranostic prodrug was designed by directly conjugating Doxorubicin (DOX) as the FRET acceptor onto the naphthalimide side groups in the fluorescent copolymer PPEGMA₂₀-PNAP₈ as the FRET energy donor via an acid-labile imine bond, without a fluorogenic linker. The proposed PPEGMA₂₀-PNAP₈-DOX theranostic prodrug showed a high DOX content of 24.3% owing to a conjugation efficiency of > 93% under mild conjugation conditions. It could easily self-assemble into unique theranostic nanoparticles with a D_h of 71 nm. The theranostic nanoparticles showed excellent pH-triggered DOX release performance with very low premature drug leakage of 6.3% in normal physiological medium over 129 h, while>91% of the conjugated DOX was released in the acidic tumor intracellular microenvironment. MTT assays indicated the enhanced antitumor efficacy of the proposed theranostic nanoparticles compared with free DOX. Furthermore, because drug release was triggered by pH, orange fluorescence was restored to the blue fluorescence of the backbone copolymer. Such self-tracking pH-responsive colorful fluorescence variations during intracellular drug delivery and release are expected to allow real-time tumor intracellular drug release monitoring and imaging diagnosis.

Glycopolymers for Efficient Inhibition of Galectin-3: In Vitro Proof of Efficacy Using Suppression of T Lymphocyte Apoptosis and Tumor Cell Migration

The development of efficient galectin-3 (Gal-3) inhibitors draws attention in the field of anti-cancer therapy, especially due to the prominent role of extra- and intracellular Gal-3 in vital processes of cancerogenesis, such as immunosuppression, stimulation of tumor cells proliferation, survival, invasion, apoptotic resistance, and metastasis formation and progression. Here, by combining poly-LacNAc (Galβ4GlcNAc)-derived oligosaccharides with N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide (HPMA) copolymers, we synthesized multivalent glycopolymer inhibitors with a high potential to target extracellular and intracellular Gal-3. The inhibitory capabilities of the best conjugate in the studied series were in the nanomolar range proving the excellent Gal-3 inhibitory potential. Moreover, thorough investigation of the inhibitory effect in the biological conditions showed that the glycopolymers strongly inhibited Gal-3-induced apoptosis of T lymphocytes and suppressed migration and spreading of colorectal, breast, melanoma, and prostate cancer cells. In sum, the strong inhibitory activity toward Gal-3, combined with favorable pharmacokinetics of HPMA copolymers ensuring enhanced tumor accumulation via the enhanced permeability and retention effect, nominate the glycopolymers containing LacdiNAc-LacNAc (GalNAcβ4GlcNAcβ3Galβ4GlcNAc) tetrasaccharide as promising tools for preclinical in anti-cancer therapy evaluation.