Forms and Methods for Interferon's Encapsulation

Engineering interferons for cancer immunotherapy

Interferons are a family of cytokines that are famously known for their involvement in innate and adaptive immunity. Type I interferons (IFNs) exert pleiotropic effects on various immune cells and contribute to tumor-intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms. Their pleiotropic effects and ubiquitous expression on nucleated cells have made them attractive candidates for cytokine engineering to deliver to largely immunosuppressive tumors. Type III interferons were believed to play overlapping roles with type I IFNs because they share a similar signaling pathway and induce similar transcriptional programs. However, type III IFNs are unique in their cell specific receptor expression and their antitumor activity is specific to a narrow range of cell types. Thus, type III IFN based therapies may show reduced toxic side effects compared with type I IFN based treatment. In this review, we focus on the development of IFN-based therapeutics used to treat different tumors. We highlight how the development in cytokine engineering has allowed for efficient delivery of type I and type III IFNs to tumor sites and look ahead to the obstacles that are still associated with IFN-based therapies before they can be fully and safely integrated into clinical settings.

Type I interferon pathway in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus

BACKGROUND

The role of type I interferon (IFN-I) signaling in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) has been well established. However, unanswered questions remain regarding the applicability of these findings to pediatric-onset SLE. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the novel discoveries on IFN-I signaling in pediatric-onset SLE.

DATA SOURCES

A literature search was conducted in the PubMed database using the following keywords: "pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus" and "type I interferon".

RESULTS

IFN-I signaling is increased in pediatric SLE, largely due to the presence of plasmacytoid dendritic cells and pathways such as cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes-TANK-binding kinase 1 and Toll-like receptor (TLR)4/TLR9. Neutrophil extracellular traps and oxidative DNA damage further stimulate IFN-I production. Genetic variants in IFN-I-related genes, such as IFN-regulatory factor 5 and tyrosine kinase 2, are linked to SLE susceptibility in pediatric patients. In addition, type I interferonopathies, characterized by sustained IFN-I activation, can mimic SLE symptoms and are thus important to distinguish. Studies on interferonopathies also contribute to exploring the pathogenesis of SLE. Measuring IFN-I activation is crucial for SLE diagnosis and stratification. Both IFN-stimulated gene expression and serum IFN-α2 levels are common indicators. Flow cytometry markers such as CD169 and galectin-9 are promising alternatives. Anti-IFN therapies, such as sifalimumab and anifrolumab, show promise in adult patients with SLE, but their efficacy in pediatric patients requires further investigation. Janus kinase inhibitors are another treatment option for severe pediatric SLE patients.

CONCLUSIONS

This review presents an overview of the IFN-I pathway in pediatric SLE. Understanding the intricate relationship between IFN-I and pediatric SLE may help to identify potential diagnostic markers and targeted therapies, paving the way for improved patient care and outcomes.

Effect of IFN‑γ encapsulated liposomes on major signal transduction pathways in the lymphocytes of patients with lung cancer

Globally, lung cancer affected 2.2 million individuals and caused 1.8 million deaths in 2021. Lung cancer is caused by smoking, genetics and other factors. IFN-γ has anticancer activity. However, the mechanism by which IFN-γ has an effect on lung cancer is not fully understood. The present study aimed to assess the effect of IFN-γ on the peripheral lymphocytes of patients with lung cancer compared with healthy controls. The efficacy of IFN-γ against oxidative stress was assessed using a comet repair assay and the effects of IFN-γ on p53, PARP1 and OGG1 genes and protein levels in lymphocytes was evaluated by RT-qPCR and western blotting. DNA damage was significantly reduced in the lymphocytes of patients treated with IFN-γ. However, there was no effect in the cells of healthy individuals after treatment with naked IFN-γ [IFN-γ (N)] and liposomal IFN-γ [IFN-γ (L)]. Following treatment with IFN-γ (N) and IFN-γ (L), the p53, PARP1 and OGG1 protein and gene expression levels were significantly increased (P<0.001). It has been suggested that IFN-γ may induce p53-mediated cell cycle arrest and DNA repair in patients. These findings supported the idea that IFN-γ (N) and IFN-γ (L) may serve a significant role in the treatment of lung cancer, via cell cycle arrest of cancer cells and repair mechanisms.

Recent and future perspectives on engineering interferons and other cytokines as therapeutics

As crucial mediators and regulators of our immune system, cytokines are involved in a broad range of biological processes and are implicated in various disease pathologies. The field of cytokine therapeutics has gained much momentum from the maturation of conventional protein engineering methodologies such as structure-based designs and/or directed evolution, which is further aided by the advent of in silico protein designs and characterization. Just within the past 5 years, there has been an explosion of proof-of-concept, preclinical, and clinical studies that utilize an armory of protein engineering methods to develop cytokine-based drugs. Here, we highlight the key engineering strategies undertaken by recent studies that aim to improve the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profile of interferons and other cytokines as therapeutics.

Electrically regulated cell-based intervention for viral infections

This work reports on an engineered cell that-when electrically stimulated-synthesizes a desired protein, that is, ES-Biofactory. The platform has been used to express interferon (IFN)-β as a universal antiviral protein. Compelling evidence indicates the inevitability of new pandemics and drives the need for a pan-viral intervention that may be quickly deployed while more specific vaccines are in development. Toward this goal, a fast-growing mammalian cell (Chassis) has been engineered with multiple synthetic elements. These include-(1) a voltage-gated Ca2+ channel (Voltage-Sensor) that, upon sensing the electric field, activates the (2) Ca2+-mediated signaling pathway (Actuator) to upregulate (3) IFN-β, via an engineered antiviral transgene (Effector), that is, ES-Biofactory➔IFN-β. The antiviral effects of the ES-Biofactory➔IFN-β have been validated on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-infected cells. The irradiated ES-Biofactory, that does not exhibit oncogenic capacity, continues to exert antiviral effect. The resulting ES-Biofactory➔IFN-β uses a novel signaling pathway that, unlike the natural IFN synthesis pathway, is not subject to viral interference. Once clinically validated, the ES-Biofactory will be a universal antiviral cell therapy that can be immediately deployed in the event of an outbreak. The platform may also be useful in treating other diseases including cancer and autoimmune disorders.

Long-term release of bioactive interferon-alpha from PLGA-chitosan microparticles: in vitro and in vivo studies

Effective cytokine treatments often require high- and multiple-dose due to the short half-life of these molecules. Here, porcine interferon-alpha (IFNα) is encapsulated in PLGA-chitosan microparticles (IFNα-MPs) to accomplish both slow drug release and drug protection from degradation. A procedure that combines emulsion and spray-drying techniques yielded almost spherical microspheres with an average diameter of 3.00 ± 1.50 μm. SEM, Microtrac, and Z-potential analyses of three IFNα-MP batches showed similar results, indicating the process is reproducible. These studies supported molecular evidence obtained in FTIR analysis, which indicated a compact structure of IFNα-MPs. Consistently, IFNα release kinetics assessed in vitro followed a zero-order behavior typical of sustained release from a polymeric matrix. This study showed that IFNα-MPs released bioactive molecules for at least 15 days, achieving IFNα protection. In addition, pigs treated with IFNα-MPs exhibited overexpression of IFNα-stimulated genes 16 days after treatment. Instead, the expression levels of these genes decreased after day 4th in pigs treated with non-encapsulated IFNα. In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that the formulation improved the prophylactic and therapeutic potential of IFNα, accomplishing molecule protection and long-term release for at least two weeks. The procedure used to obtain IFNα-MPs is reproducible, scalable, and suitable for encapsulating other drugs.

Long-acting injectable formulation technologies: Challenges and opportunities for the delivery of fragile molecules

INTRODUCTION

The development of long acting injectables (LAIs) for protein and peptide therapeutics has been a key challenge over the last 20 years. If these molecules offer advantages due to their high specificity and selectivity, their controlled release may confer several additional benefits in terms of extended half-life, local delivery, and patient compliance.

AREA COVERED

This manuscript aims to give an overview of peptide and protein based LAIs from an industrial perspective, describing both approved and promising technologies (with exceptions of protein engineering strategies and devices), their advantages and potential improvements to aid their access to the market.

EXPERT OPINION

Many LAIs have been developed for peptides, with formulations on the market for several decades. On the contrary, LAIs for proteins are still far from the market and issues related to manufacturing and sterilization of these products still need to be overcome. In situ forming depots (ISFDs), whose simple manufacturing conditions and easy administration procedures (without reconstitution) are strong advantages, appear as one of the most promising technologies for the delivery of these molecules. In this regard, the approval of ELIGARD® in the early 2000's (which still requires a complex reconstitution process), paved the way for the development of second-generation, ready-to-use ISFD technologies like BEPO® and FluidCrystal®.

Disclosing the Potential of Fluorinated Ionic Liquids as Interferon-Alpha 2b Delivery Systems

Interferon-alpha 2b (IFN-α 2b) is a therapeutic protein used for the treatment of cancer, viral infections, and auto-immune diseases. Its application is hindered by a low bioavailability and instability in the bloodstream, and the search for new strategies for a target delivery and stabilization of IFN-α 2b to improve its therapeutic efficacy is crucial. Fluorinated ionic liquids (FILs) are promising biomaterials that: (i) can form self-assembled structures; (ii) have complete miscibility in water; and (iii) can be designed to have reduced toxicity. The influence of IFN-α 2b in the aggregation behaviour of FILs and the interactions between them were investigated through conductivity and surface tension measurements, and using electron microscopic and spectroscopy techniques to study FILs feasibility as an interferon-alpha 2b delivery system. The results show that the presence of IFN-α 2b influences the aggregation behaviour of FILs and that strong interaction between the two compounds occurs. The protein might not be fully encapsulated by FILs. However, the FIL can be tailored in the future to carry IFN-α 2b by the formation of a conjugate, which prevents the aggregation of this protein. This work constitutes a first step toward the design and development of FIL-based IFN-α 2b delivery systems.

A review on drug repurposing in COVID-19: from antiviral drugs to herbal alternatives

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 is an illness caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Due to its rapid spread, in March 2020 the World Health Organization (WHO) declared pandemic. Since the outbreak of pandemic many governments, scientists, and institutions started to work on new vaccines and finding of new and repurposing drugs. Drug repurposing is an excellent option for discovery of already used drugs, effective against COVID-19, lowering the cost of production, and shortening the period of delivery, especially when preclinical safety studies have already been performed. There are many approved drugs that showed significant results against COVID-19, like ivermectin and hydrochloroquine, including alternative treatment options against COVID-19, utilizing herbal medicine.

SHORT CONCLUSION

This article summarized 11 repurposing drugs, their positive and negative health implications, along with traditional herbal alternatives, that harvest strong potential in efficient treatments options against COVID-19, with small or no significant side effects. Out of 11 repurposing drugs, four drugs are in status of emergency approval, most of them being in phase IV clinical trials. The first repurposing drug approved for clinical usage is remdesivir, whereas chloroquine and hydrochloroquine approval for emergency use was revoked by FDA for COVID-19 treatment in June 2020.

The Hitchhiker's Guide to Human Therapeutic Nanoparticle Development

Nanomedicine plays an essential role in developing new therapies through novel drug delivery systems, diagnostic and imaging systems, vaccine development, antibacterial tools, and high-throughput screening. One of the most promising drug delivery systems are nanoparticles, which can be designed with various compositions, sizes, shapes, and surface modifications. These nanosystems have improved therapeutic profiles, increased bioavailability, and reduced the toxicity of the product they carry. However, the clinical translation of nanomedicines requires a thorough understanding of their properties to avoid problems with the most questioned aspect of nanosystems: safety. The particular physicochemical properties of nano-drugs lead to the need for additional safety, quality, and efficacy testing. Consequently, challenges arise during the physicochemical characterization, the production process, in vitro characterization, in vivo characterization, and the clinical stages of development of these biopharmaceuticals. The lack of a specific regulatory framework for nanoformulations has caused significant gaps in the requirements needed to be successful during their approval, especially with tests that demonstrate their safety and efficacy. Researchers face many difficulties in establishing evidence to extrapolate results from one level of development to another, for example, from an in vitro demonstration phase to an in vivo demonstration phase. Additional guidance is required to cover the particularities of this type of product, as some challenges in the regulatory framework do not allow for an accurate assessment of NPs with sufficient evidence of clinical success. This work aims to identify current regulatory issues during the implementation of nanoparticle assays and describe the major challenges that researchers have faced when exposing a new formulation. We further reflect on the current regulatory standards required for the approval of these biopharmaceuticals and the requirements demanded by the regulatory agencies. Our work will provide helpful information to improve the success of nanomedicines by compiling the challenges described in the literature that support the development of this novel encapsulation system. We propose a step-by-step approach through the different stages of the development of nanoformulations, from their design to the clinical stage, exemplifying the different challenges and the measures taken by the regulatory agencies to respond to these challenges.