Biological Features of Nanoparticles: Protein Corona Formation and Interaction with the Immune System

Aluminium oxide nanoparticles (Al2O3-NPs) exposure impairs cardiovascular physiology and elevates health risk - proteomic and molecular mechanistic insights

The interactions of nanoparticles with biomolecules lead to toxicopathological outcomes through various mechanisms including oxidative stress. In this regard, the interplay of oxidative stress with other molecular mechanisms of cytotoxicity during aluminium oxide nanoparticles (Al2O3-NPs) induced cardiovascular toxicity was not yet precisely explored. Initially, the human serum protein interaction and its corona composition were explored through the gel/label-free proteomics (nLC-HRMS/MS) method. In addition, endothelial cells (EC) and cardiomyoblasts (CM) cultures were employed along with various oxidative stress and cell stress assays. Further, various expression studies (RT-qPCR, western blot, and immunofluorescence), kinase signalling, and siRNA mediated gene knockout assays were performed. Alongside, the in ovo impact on antioxidant enzymes and metabolomic pathways (1H NMR) in the heart validated the role of oxidative stress during cardiotoxicity. The current outcome illustrates the dose-dependent increase of cytotoxicity and caspase (3 and 9) activation. The dose-dependent elevation and its synergy with cardiovascular stress signalling (ET-1 and Ang-II) illustrate the prominent role of oxidative stress during toxicity. In conclusion, the current study connects the role of the redox system and molecular stress pathways during Al2O3-NPs induced cardiotoxicity which extends the knowledge towards the precise health risk assessment during human exposure.

Engineered nanoparticles for imaging and targeted drug delivery in hepatocellular carcinoma

Liver cancer, notably hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), poses a significant global health burden due to its high fatality rates. Conventional antitumor medications face challenges, including poor targeting, high toxicity, and drug resistance, leading to suboptimal clinical outcomes. This review focused on nanoparticle use in diagnosing and delivering medication for HCC, aiming to advance the development of nanomedicines for improved treatment outcomes. As an emerging frontier science and technology, nanotechnology has shown great potential, especially in precision medicine and personalized treatment. The success of nanosystems is attributable to their smaller size, biocompatibility, selective tumor accumulation, and lower toxicity. Nanoparticles, as a central part of nanotechnology innovation, have emerged in the field of medical diagnostics and therapeutics to overcome the various limitations of conventional chemotherapy, thus offering promising applications for improved selectivity, earlier and more precise diagnosis of cancers, personalized treatment, and overcoming drug resistance. Nanoparticles play a crucial role in drug delivery and imaging of HCC, with the body acting as a delivery system to target and deliver drugs or diagnostic reagents to specific organs or tissues, helping to accurately diagnose and target therapies while minimizing damage to healthy tissues. They protect drugs from early degradation and increase their biological half-life.

Protein corona formation on supramolecular polymer nanoparticles causes differential endosomal sorting resulting in an attenuated NLRP3 inflammasome activation

Upon introduction into biological environments, nanoparticles undergo the spontaneous formation of a dynamic protein corona, which continually evolves and significantly modifies their physicochemical properties and interactions with biological systems. This evolving protein corona can critically impact the nanoparticles' endocytic pathways and targeting efficiency, potentially altering their functional characteristics and obscuring their intended therapeutic effects. Despite considerable focus on the characterization of corona proteins and their impact on nanoparticle uptake, the intracellular processes and their effects on immunogenicity are not yet thoroughly understood. Supramolecular polymer nanoparticles (SNPs) with a highly hydrophobic core are recognized for triggering NLRP3 inflammasome activation, a key component of the innate immune system. Here, it is reported that the protein corona formation on SNPs exerts an inhibitory effect on the activation pathway of NLRP3 inflammasome. The protein corona impairs the intrinsic capacity of SNPs to induce lysosomal membrane rupture, thereby diminishing the cellular stress signals necessary for the formation of the NLRP3 inflammasome complex. Furthermore, the cells transport SNPs with an attached protein corona to recycling endosomes, where they are sorted and prepared for exocytosis. Conversely, nascent SNPs are primarily confined to late endosomes and lysosomes, leading to lysosomal rupture and inflammasome activation. This differential routing reflects the significant impact of the protein corona on the cellular handling and subsequent biological activity of nanoparticles. In summary, this study elucidates the fundamental role of the protein corona in shaping the intracellular disposition of nanoparticles, with implications for modulating their interactions with the immune system.

Development of Iron Oxide Nanochains as a Sensitive Magnetic Particle Imaging Tracer for Cancer Detection

The advancement of imaging technologies plays a crucial role in improving the diagnosis and monitoring of diseases, including cancer. This study introduces a new design of iron oxide-based nanoparticles specifically developed for magnetic particle imaging (MPI), aimed at tracking and diagnosing breast cancer more effectively. By precisely controlling the size, shape, and magnetic properties of these nanoparticles, we enhance the responsiveness of MPI, resulting in an increased signal. In our research, we established a novel synthetic route for fabricating iron oxide nanochains (FeONCs) characterized by their uniform shape and size, which contribute to high magnetic properties suitable for MPI applications. Initial results indicate these FeONCs exhibit superior magnetic properties compared to conventional spherical superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, nanocubes, and reported nanoworm-type structures. Magnetic relaxometry studies revealed that FeONCs provide higher sensitivity than the commonly used VivoTrax Synomag D50 and D70 in MPI. Further, the size and shape of FeONCs significantly influence cellular uptake. In vivo experiments using orthotopic breast cancer mouse models allow us to assess the biocompatibility and magnetic characteristics of the nanoparticles, confirming their imaging efficacy. Furthermore, by conjugating these nanoparticles with the RGD peptide, we enhance their ability to specifically target breast cancer, establishing them as promising tracers for in vivo MPI applications characterized by high sensitivity. Thus, our findings highlight that FeONCs significantly improve imaging quality, facilitating the early detection and accurate monitoring of breast cancer. This paves the way for innovative diagnostic strategies and personalized treatment options. Future research will focus on fine-tuning the surface chemistry of these nanoparticles to further enhance the targeting efficiency and optimization of their practice in clinical applications, particularly for MPI-based hyperthermia therapy.

Targeting tumor microenvironment with RGD-functionalized nanoparticles for precision cancer therapy

The need for precision therapies arises from the complexities associated with high-risk types of cancer, due to their aggressiveness and resistance to treatment. These diseases represent a global issue that requires transversal strategies involving cooperation among oncology specialists and experts from related fields, including nanomedicine. Nanoparticle-mediated active targeting of tumors has proven to be a revolutionary approach to address the most challenging neoplasms by overcoming the poor permeation at tumor site of untargeted, and nowadays questioned, strategies that rely solely on Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) effects. The decoration of nanoparticles with Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) peptides, which selectively target integrins on the cell membrane, marks a turning point in tumor microenvironment (TME) targeted strategies, enabling precision and efficiency in the delivery of chemotherapeutics. This review delves into the intricacies of the TME's features and targetable components (i.e. integrins), and the development of RGDs for nanoparticles' functionalization for active TME targeting. It provides a translational perspective on the integration of RGD-functionalized nanoparticles in oncology, highlighting their potential to overcome current therapeutic challenges, particularly in precision medicine. The current landscape of targeted nanomedicines in the clinic, and the development of RGD-nanomedicine for pediatric cancers are also discussed.

Hemoglobin-loaded ZIF-8 nanoparticles equipped with PEGylated metal-phenolic network coatings: an oxygen carrier with antioxidant and stealth properties

Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) offer a promising alternative to conventional blood transfusions in emergency scenarios. However, achieving optimal stability, functionality, and biocompatibility in HBOCs remains a significant challenge. In this study, we employed a HBOC formulation consisting of hemoglobin (Hb) encapsulated within zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) nanoparticles (NPs). These NPs were subsequently coated with metal phenolic networks (MPNs) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) to impart antioxidant properties and enhance their stability and biocompatibility. Hb-loaded ZIF-8 NPs were synthesized using a rapid, environmentally friendly protocol and exhibited desirable properties, including an average size of approximately 150 nm, a negative surface charge (zeta potential of -14 mV), high encapsulation efficiency (approximately 65%), and substantial drug loading capacity (around 70%). The MPN coating significantly enhanced stability across various buffers and cell media and endowed the NPs with antioxidant properties. Meanwhile, the PEG layer conferred stealth properties, potentially extending circulation times in vivo. Furthermore, the NPs showed excellent biocompatibility in terms of cell viability and hemolysis rate studies. They also efficiently bound and released oxygen across multiple cycles, demonstrating preserved functionality. These attributes highlight the potential of our novel HBOC as an effective oxygen delivery system and position our formulation as a promising candidate for clinical application in critical care, providing a strategic alternative to traditional blood transfusions.

In vitro and in vivo investigations of hemoglobin-loaded PEGylated ZIF-8 nanoparticles as oxygen carriers for emergency transfusion

The limitations of traditional blood supply systems, particularly where ideal storage is unfeasible, challenge the efficacy of transfusion medicine, especially in emergencies and battlefield scenarios. This study investigates a novel hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier (HBOC) using a dual-coating approach with metal phenolic networks (MPNs) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). Utilizing zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) nanoparticles for their porosity and biocompatibility, the addition of MPN and PEG coatings enhances biocompatibility and stabilizes encapsulated hemoglobin (Hb). This reduces Hb release and minimizes interactions with the coagulation cascade, as evidenced by stable prothrombin and activated partial thromboplastin times. Complement activation studies showed slight increases in C5a levels, indicating low potential for severe immune reactions. In vivo evaluations demonstrated that both MPN-coated and PEGylated Hb-loaded ZIF-8 NPs have enhanced circulation times, with significantly longer half-lives than free Hb. However, PEGylation did not offer additional benefits over MPN coating alone, possibly due to suboptimal PEG density or shielding. Biodistribution studies indicated similar accumulation patterns in the liver and kidneys for both NP types, suggesting common clearance pathways. These findings suggest our PEGylated Hb-loaded ZIF-8 NPs as promising alternatives to traditional transfusions. Future research will assess their efficacy in resuscitation from hemorrhagic shock to validate their clinical application.

Surface interactions of gelatin-sourced carbon quantum dots with a model globular protein: insights into carbon-based nanomaterials and biological systems

Carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene quantum dots (GQDs), and carbon quantum dots (CQDs), are prevalent in biological systems and have been widely utilized in applications like environmental sensing and biomedical fields. While their presence in human matrices is projected to increase, the interfacial interactions between carbon-based nanoscopic platforms and biomolecular systems continue to remain underexplored. In this study, we investigated the effect of gelatin-sourced CQDs on the globular milk protein beta-lactoglobulin (BLG). Exposure to the CQDs resulted in the disruption of BLG's tertiary and secondary structural elements (transformation of isolated helices to coiled-coils and increased beta-sheet content), with IR amide backbone signatures further confirming CQD-induced alterations in protein structures. Importantly, the structural perturbations induced by CQDs compromised BLG : retinol interactions, potentially affecting its physiological ligand transport function. By contrast, cytotoxicity analyses revealed a high viability of neuroblastoma cells exposed to this CNM, suggesting biomolecule-specific effects. Collectively, the data reveal aberrant molecular and functional consequences associated with the interactions of a globular protein with an otherwise biocompatible CQD. In conclusion, this work represents the initial steps toward a comprehensive understanding at the atomic and molecular levels of the outcomes linked to the utilization of carbon-based nanomaterials and their potential adverse systemic consequences.

Nanoparticle Association with Brain Cells Is Augmented by Protein Coronas Formed in Cerebrospinal Fluid

Neuronanomedicine harnesses nanoparticle technology for the treatment of neurological disorders. An unavoidable consequence of nanoparticle delivery to biological systems is the formation of a protein corona on the nanoparticle surface. Despite the well-established influence of the protein corona on nanoparticle behavior and fate, as well as FDA approval of neuro-targeted nanotherapeutics, the effect of a physiologically relevant protein corona on nanoparticle-brain cell interactions is insufficiently explored. Indeed, less than 1% of protein corona studies have investigated protein coronas formed in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), the fluid surrounding the brain. Herein, we utilize two clinically relevant polymeric nanoparticles (PLGA and PLGA-PEG) to evaluate the formation of serum and CSF protein coronas. LC-MS analysis revealed distinct protein compositions, with selective enrichment/depletion profiles. Enhanced association of CSF precoated particles with brain cells demonstrates the importance of selecting physiologically relevant biological fluids to more accurately study protein corona formation and subsequent nanoparticle-cell interactions, paving the way for improved nanoparticle engineering for in vivo applications.

Inflammatory disease progression shapes nanoparticle biomolecular corona-mediated immune activation profiles

Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) are promising tools used for immunomodulation and drug delivery in various disease contexts. The interaction between NP surfaces and plasma-resident biomolecules results in the formation of a biomolecular corona, which varies patient-to-patient and as a function of disease state. This study investigates how the progression of acute systemic inflammatory disease influences NP corona compositions and the corresponding effects on innate immune cell interactions, phenotypes, and cytokine responses. NP coronas alter cell associations in a disease-dependent manner, induce differential co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory molecule expression, and influence cytokine release. Integrated multi-omics analysis of proteomics, lipidomics, metabolomics, and cytokine datasets highlight a set of differentially enriched TLR4 ligands that correlate with dynamic NP corona-mediated immune activation. Pharmacological inhibition and genetic knockout studies validate that NP coronas mediate this response through TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling. Our findings illuminate the personalized nature of corona formation under a dynamic inflammatory condition and its impact on NP-mediated immune activation profiles and inflammation, suggesting that disease progression-related alterations in plasma composition can manifest in the corona to cause unintended toxicity and altered therapeutic efficacy.

DNA-loaded targeted nanoparticles as a safe platform to produce exogenous proteins in tumor B cells

Introduction

The functionalization of nanoparticles (NPs) with an antiCD19 targeting mechanism represents a promising approach for the selective delivery of drugs and nucleic acids into normal and tumor B cells. This strategy has the advantage of minimizing off-target effects by restricting gene delivery to the desired cell population. However, the nanoplatform must guarantee both the local production of the protein and the safety of the treatment to allow an effective therapy with reduced systemic toxicity.

Methods

In order to ensure a selective delivery of nucleic acids, we developed poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) NPs loaded with an Enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (EGFP)-coding plasmid and covalently coated with antiCD19 recombinant antibody as a targeting mechanism. To assess the functionality of the NPs, physicochemical characterization, safety tests, and transfection assay were employed to evaluate the NPs' behavior in vitro and in vivo, in a human/zebrafish lymphoma xenograft model.

Results

The results demonstrated that the PLGA-PVA nanoplatform was capable of efficiently encapsulating and releasing the payload. These nanostructures demonstrated a favorable safety profile, as evidenced by the absence of significant cell cytotoxicity, coagulation activation, complement system activation, and the slight activation of endothelial cells and leukocytes. The targeting mechanism facilitated the interaction of NPs with target cells, thereby enhancing their internalization and subsequent exogenous plasmid DNA (pDNA) translation and protein expression. In the human/zebrafish lymphoma xenograft model, no evidence of toxicity was observed, and targeted NPs demonstrated the capacity to enhance exogenous pDNA expression.

Conclusion

Our findings provide a rationale for the use of targeted NPs as a DNA delivery system for the local expression of therapeutic proteins.

Complement activation drives the phagocytosis of necrotic cell debris and resolution of liver injury

Cells die by necrosis due to excessive chemical or thermal stress, leading to plasma membrane rupture, release of intracellular components and severe inflammation. The clearance of necrotic cell debris is crucial for tissue recovery and injury resolution, however, the underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood, especially in vivo. This study examined the role of complement proteins in promoting clearance of necrotic cell debris by leukocytes and their influence on liver regeneration. We found that independently of the type of necrotic liver injury, either acetaminophen (APAP) overdose or thermal injury, complement proteins C1q and (i)C3b were deposited specifically on necrotic lesions via the activation of the classical pathway. Importantly, C3 deficiency led to a significant accumulation of necrotic debris and impairment of liver recovery in mice, which was attributed to decreased phagocytosis of debris by recruited neutrophils in vivo. Monocytes and macrophages also took part in debris clearance, although the necessity of C3 and CD11b was dependent on the specific type of necrotic liver injury. Using human neutrophils, we showed that absence of C3 or C1q caused a reduction in the volume of necrotic debris that is phagocytosed, indicating that complement promotes effective debris uptake in mice and humans. Moreover, internalization of opsonized debris induced the expression of pro-resolving genes in a C3-dependent manner, supporting the notion that debris clearance favors the resolution of inflammation. In summary, complement activation at injury sites is a pivotal event for necrotic debris clearance by phagocytes and determinant for efficient recovery from tissue injury.

Dendritic cell activation by iron oxide nanoparticles depends on the extracellular environment

Nanoparticles can exert immune modulating effects in a host depending on composition, mode of administration, and type of disease. Although the specific mechanisms of nanoparticle-induced immune responses remain unclear, their uptake by macrophages and other phagocytic innate immune cells is considered to be a key event. Our objective here was to ascertain if nanoparticle-mediated activation of dendritic cells (DCs) occurs in vitro or in vivo when exposed to hydroxyethyl starch-coated iron oxide nanoparticles. For the present studies, our choice of nanoparticles, animal model, and experimental design is motivated by our previously published observations that systemic exposure can induce antitumor adaptive immune responses in mouse models of metastatic breast cancer. Here, we began by assessing the potential toxicity of systemic exposure to commercially available starch-coated Bionized Nanoferrite® nanoparticles (BP) by measuring body weight, complete blood count, and enzyme parameters in healthy FVB/NJ mice after repeated BP dosing. We observed no evidence of toxicity at doses up to 25 mg Fe per mouse, five-fold higher than those used in subsequent in vivo experiments. We then measured the expression of surface maturation markers (CD86, MHC II) in DCs incubated with BP in vitro. Although DCs cultured with BP revealed high levels of nanoparticle uptake, neither JAWSII dendritic cells nor bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) showed significant changes in marker expression to indicate stimulation of maturation and effector function. To assess whether BP interactions in vivo produced different effects, we analyzed CD80, CD86, and MHC II expression of DCs recovered from the livers, spleens, bone marrows, and lymph nodes of mice injected once with BP (5 mg Fe). Interestingly, only DCs in spleens and bone marrow cells responded to BP exposure. DCs recovered from other organs showed no evidence of increased activation. These findings highlight complex interactions between living systems and nanoparticles, and their potential to mediate context-specific and selective activation of innate immune cells. Our study also emphasizes that results obtained from in vitro experiments must be interpreted with caution, as they may not faithfully represent responses in living systems.

Stealth-Engineered Albumin-Coated Nanoparticles for Targeted Therapy: Effective Drug Delivery and Tumor Suppression in Xenograft-Zebrafish Model

Purpose

In the bloodstream, nanoparticles (NPs) interact with serum proteins to form the protein corona, which includes both opsonins, promoting NP recognition and elimination, and dysopsonins, which can inhibit opsonin activity. Albumin, the most abundant serum protein, is part of this corona and can act as a dysopsonin, potentially hiding NPs from the immune system. This study aims to investigate how a covalently bound layer of human serum albumin (HSA) on polymeric NPs affects the protein corona and their behavior in the immune system.

Methods

We covalently attached HSA to the surface of polymeric NPs to modify the protein corona composition. These HSA-covered nanostructures were then decorated with an anti-CD19 recombinant antibody fragment to target malignant B cells, specifically acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) cells. The safety profile and bioavailability of these targeted HSA-nanoparticles were evaluated in vitro and in vivo using a human-zebrafish xenograft model of ALL. The efficacy of the nanostructures in delivering encapsulated doxorubicin and suppressing tumor growth was also assessed.

Results

The HSA coating on polymeric NPs effectively modified the protein corona, preventing opsonization and subsequent macrophage-mediated elimination. The targeted HSA-nanoparticles maintained a safe profile with reduced macrophage interaction and specifically targeted tumor cells in the xenograft model. This resulted in the successful delivery of doxorubicin, tumor growth suppression, and increased survival of the model organisms.

Conclusion

The study demonstrates that HSA-coated nanoparticles can be used as a therapeutic nanoplatform with a safe profile and enhanced bioavailability. The ability to decorate these nanostructures with specific targeting agents, such as anti-CD19 antibodies, opens up the potential for developing versatile therapeutic platforms that can be tailored to target various clinical conditions.

Post-Sterilization Physicochemical Characterization and Biological Activity of Cellulose Nanocrystals Coated with PDDA

The rapid expansion of medical nanotechnology has significantly broadened the potential applications of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). While CNCs were initially developed for drug delivery, they are now being investigated for a range of advanced biomedical applications. As these applications evolve, it becomes crucial to understand the physicochemical behavior of CNCs in biologically relevant media to optimize their design and ensure biocompatibility. Functionalized CNCs can adsorb biomolecules, forming a "protein corona" that can impact their physicochemical properties, including alterations in particle size, zeta potential, and overall functionality. In this study, CNCs were coated with low (8500 Da)- and high (400,000-500,000 Da)-molecular-weight cationic polymer (poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride-(PDDA) via non-covalent grafting, and their physicochemical characteristics, as well as their biological effects, were assessed in physiologically relevant media after sterilization. Our findings show that autoclaving significantly alters the physicochemical properties of CNC-PDDA, particularly when coated with low-molecular-weight (LMW) polymer. Furthermore, we observed that CNC-PDDA of a high molecular weight (HMW) has a greater impact on cell viability and blood biocompatibility than its LMW counterpart. Moreover, cellular immune responses to both CNC-PDDA LMW and HMW vary in the presence or absence of serum, implying that protein adsorption influences cell-nanomaterial recognition and their biological activity. This study provides valuable insights for optimizing CNC-based nanomaterials for therapeutic applications.

Nanotechnology in healthcare, and its safety and environmental risks

Nanotechnology holds immense promise in revolutionising healthcare, offering unprecedented opportunities in diagnostics, drug delivery, cancer therapy, and combating infectious diseases. This review explores the multifaceted landscape of nanotechnology in healthcare while addressing the critical aspects of safety and environmental risks associated with its widespread application. Beginning with an introduction to the integration of nanotechnology in healthcare, we first delved into its categorisation and various materials employed, setting the stage for a comprehensive understanding of its potential. We then proceeded to elucidate the diverse healthcare applications of nanotechnology, spanning medical diagnostics, tissue engineering, targeted drug delivery, gene delivery, cancer therapy, and the development of antimicrobial agents. The discussion extended to the current situation surrounding the clinical translation and commercialisation of these cutting-edge technologies, focusing on the nanotechnology-based healthcare products that have been approved globally to date. We also discussed the safety considerations of nanomaterials, both in terms of human health and environmental impact. We presented the in vivo health risks associated with nanomaterial exposure, in relation with transport mechanisms, oxidative stress, and physical interactions. Moreover, we highlighted the environmental risks, acknowledging the potential implications on ecosystems and biodiversity. Lastly, we strived to offer insights into the current regulatory landscape governing nanotechnology in healthcare across different regions globally. By synthesising these diverse perspectives, we underscore the imperative of balancing innovation with safety and environmental stewardship, while charting a path forward for the responsible integration of nanotechnology in healthcare.

Navigating the nano-bio immune interface: advancements and challenges in CNS nanotherapeutics

In recent years, significant advancements have been made in utilizing nanoparticles (NPs) to modulate immune responses within the central nervous system (CNS), offering new opportunities for nanotherapeutic interventions in neurological disorders. NPs can serve as carriers for immunomodulatory agents or platforms for delivering nucleic acid-based therapeutics to regulate gene expression and modulate immune responses. Several studies have demonstrated the efficacy of NP-mediated immune modulation in preclinical models of neurological diseases, including multiple sclerosis, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. While challenges remain, advancements in NPs engineering and design have led to the development of NPs using diverse strategies to overcome these challenges. The nano-bio interface with the immune system is key in the conceptualization of NPs to efficiently act as nanotherapeutics in the CNS. The biomolecular corona plays a pivotal role in dictating NPs behavior and immune recognition within the CNS, giving researchers the opportunity to optimize NPs design and surface modifications to minimize immunogenicity and enhance biocompatibility. Here, we review how NPs interact with the CNS immune system, focusing on immunosurveillance of NPs, NP-induced immune reprogramming and the impact of the biomolecular corona on NPs behavior in CNS immune responses. The integration of NPs into CNS nanotherapeutics offers promising opportunities for addressing the complex challenges of acute and chronic neurological conditions and pathologies, also in the context of preventive and rehabilitative medicine. By harnessing the nano-bio immune interface and understanding the significance of the biomolecular corona, researchers can develop targeted, safe, and effective nanotherapeutic interventions for a wide range of CNS disorders to improve treatment and rehabilitation. These advancements have the potential to revolutionize the treatment landscape of neurological diseases, offering promising solutions for improved patient care and quality of life in the future.

Challenges in Exploiting Human H Ferritin Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery: Navigating Physiological Constraints

Over the past two decades, ferritin has emerged as a promising nanoparticle for drug delivery, catalyzing the development of numerous prototypes capable of encapsulating a wide array of therapeutic agents. These ferritin-based nanoparticles exhibit selectivity for various molecular targets and are distinguished by their potential biocompatibility, unique symmetrical structure, and highly controlled size. The hollow interior of ferritin nanoparticles allows for efficient encapsulation of diverse therapeutic agents, enhancing their delivery and effectiveness. Despite these promising features, the anticipated clinical advancements have yet to be fully realized. As a physiological protein with a central role in both health and disease, ferritin can exert unexpected effects on physiology when employed as a drug delivery system. Many studies have not thoroughly evaluated the pharmacokinetic properties of the ferritin protein shell when administered in vivo, overlooking crucial aspects such as biodistribution, clearance, cellular trafficking, and immune response. Addressing these challenges is crucial for achieving the desired transition from bench to bedside. Biodistribution studies need to account for ferritin's natural accumulation in specific organs (liver, spleen, and kidneys), which may lead to off-target effects. Moreover, the mechanisms of clearance and cellular trafficking must be elucidated to optimize the delivery and reduce potential toxicity of ferritin nanoparticles. Additionally, understanding the immune response elicited by exogenous ferritin is essential to mitigate adverse reactions and enhance therapeutic efficacy. A comprehensive understanding of these physiological constraints, along with innovative solutions, is essential to fully realize the therapeutic potential of ferritin nanoparticles paving the way for their successful clinical translation.

Immunomodulatory nanoparticles activate cytotoxic T cells for enhancement of the effect of cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy represents a promising targeted treatment by leveraging the patient's immune system or adoptive transfer of active immune cells to selectively eliminate cancer cells. Despite notable clinical successes, conventional immunotherapies face significant challenges stemming from the poor infiltration of endogenous or adoptively transferred cytotoxic T cells in tumors, immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and the immune evasion capability of cancer cells, leading to limited efficacy in many types of solid tumors. Overcoming these hurdles is essential to broaden the applicability of immunotherapies. Recent advances in nanotherapeutics have emerged as an innovative tool to overcome these challenges and enhance the therapeutic potential of tumor immunotherapy. The unique biochemical and biophysical properties of nanomaterials offer advantages in activation of immune cells in vitro for cell therapy, targeted delivery, and controlled release of immunomodulatory agents in vivo. Nanoparticles are excellent carriers for tumor associated antigens or neoantigen peptides for tumor vaccine, empowering activation of tumor specific T cell responses. By precisely delivering immunomodulatory agents to the tumor site, immunoactivating nanoparticles can promote tumor infiltration of endogenous T cells or adoptively transferred T cells into tumors, to overcoming delivery and biological barriers in the tumor microenvironment, augmenting the immune system's ability to recognize and eliminate cancer cells. This review provides an overview of the current advances in immunotherapeutic approaches utilizing nanotechnology. With a focus on discussions concerning strategies to enhance activity and efficacy of cytotoxic T cells and explore the intersection of engineering nanoparticles and immunomodulation aimed at bolstering T cell-mediated immune responses, we introduce various nanoparticle formulations designed to deliver therapeutic payloads, tumor antigens and immunomodulatory agents for T cell activation. Diverse mechanisms through which nanoparticle-based approaches influence T cell responses by improving antigen presentation, promoting immune cell trafficking, and reprogramming immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments to potentiate anti-tumor immunity are examined. Additionally, the synergistic potential of combining nanotherapeutics with existing immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors and adoptive T cell therapies is explored. In conclusion, this review highlights emerging research advances on activation of cytotoxic T cells using nanoparticle agents to support the promises and potential applications of nanoparticle-based immunomodulatory agents for cancer immunotherapy.

Unraveling the impact of different liposomal formulations on the plasma protein corona composition might give hints on the targeting capability of nanoparticles

Nanoparticles (NPs) interact with biological fluids after being injected into the bloodstream. The interactions between NPs and plasma proteins at the nano-bio interface affect their biopharmaceutical properties and distribution in the organ and tissues due to protein corona (PrC) composition, and in turn, modification of the resulting targeting capability. Moreover, lipid and polymer NPs, at their interface, affect the composition of PrC and the relative adsorption and abundance of specific proteins. To investigate this latter aspect, we synthesized and characterized different liposomal formulations (LFs) with lipids and polymer-conjugated lipids at different molar ratios, having different sizes, size distributions and surface charges. The PrC composition of various designed LFs was evaluated ex vivo in human plasma by label-free quantitative proteomics. We also correlated the relative abundance of identified specific proteins in the coronas of the different LFs with their physicochemical properties (size, PDI, zeta potential). The evaluation of outputs from different bioinformatic tools discovered protein clusters allowing to highlight: (i) common as well as the unique species for the various formulations; (ii) correlation between each identified PrC and the physicochemical properties of LFs; (iii) some preferential binding determined by physicochemical properties of LFs; (iv) occurrence of formulation-specific protein patterns in PrC. Investigating specific clusters in PrC will help decode the multivalent roles of the protein pattern components in the drug delivery process, taking advantage of the bio-nanoscale recognition and identification for significant advances in nanomedicine.

Lipid- and Polymer-Based Nanocarrier Platforms for Cancer Vaccine Delivery

Cancer immunotherapy has gained popularity in recent years in the search for effective treatment modalities for various malignancies, particularly those that are resistant to conventional chemo- and radiation therapy. Cancer vaccines target the cancer-immunity cycle by boosting the patient's own immune system to recognize and kill cancer cells, thus serving as both preventative and curative therapeutic tools. Among the different types of cancer vaccines, those based on nanotechnology have shown great promise in advancing the field of cancer immunotherapy. Lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) have become the most advanced platforms for cancer vaccine delivery, but polymer-based NPs have also received considerable interest. This Review aims to provide an overview of the nanotechnology-enabled cancer vaccine landscape, focusing on recent advances in lipid- and polymer-based nanovaccines and their hybrid structures and discussing the challenges against the clinical translation of these important nanomedicines.

Ferruginous components of particulate matters in subway environments, α-Fe2O3 or Fe3O4, exacerbates allergies

The respiratory effects of particulate matter (PM) in subway station platforms or tunnels have attracted considerable research attention. However, no studies have characterized the effects of subway PM on allergic immune responses. In this study, iron oxide (α-Fe2O3 and Fe3O4) particles-the main components of subway PM-were intratracheally administered to BALB/c mice where ovalbumin (OVA) induced allergic pulmonary inflammation. Iron oxide particles enhanced OVA-induced eosinophil recruitment around the bronchi and mucus production from airway epithelium. The concentrations of type 2 cytokines, namely, interleukin (IL)-5 and IL-13, in bronchial alveolar lavage fluids were increased by iron oxide particles. Iron oxide particles also increased the number of type 2 innate lymphoid cells and CD86+ cells in the lung. Moreover, phagocytosis of particles in lung cells was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy. In a subsequent in vitro study, bone marrow-derived antigen-presenting cells (APCs) isolated from NC/Nga mice were exposed to iron oxide particles and OVA. They were also exposed to outdoor ambient PM: Vehicle Exhaust Particulates (VEP) and Urban Aerosols (UA) as references. Iron oxide particles promoted the release of lactate dehydrogenase, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 1 and IL-1α from APCs, which tended to be stronger than those of VEP. These results suggest that iron oxide particles enhance antigen presentation in the lungs, promoting allergic immune response in mice; iron oxide particles-induced death and inflammatory response of APCs can contribute to allergy exacerbation. Although iron oxide particles do not contain various compounds like VEP, iron oxide alone may have sufficient influence.

Protein Aggregation on Metal Oxides Governs Catalytic Activity and Cellular Uptake

Engineering of catalytically active inorganic nanomaterials holds promising prospects for biomedicine. Catalytically active metal oxides show applications in enhancing wound healing but have also been employed to induce cell death in photodynamic or radiation therapy. Upon introduction into a biological system, nanomaterials are exposed to complex fluids, causing interaction and adsorption of ions and proteins. While protein corona formation on nanomaterials is acknowledged, its modulation of nanomaterial catalytic efficacy is less understood. In this study, proteomic analyses and nano-analytic methodologies quantify and characterize adsorbed proteins, correlating this protein layer with metal oxide catalytic activity in vitro and in vivo. The protein corona comprises up to 280 different proteins, constituting up to 38% by weight. Enhanced complement factors and other opsonins on nanocatalyst surfaces lead to their uptake into macrophages when applied topically, localizing >99% of the nanomaterials in tissue-resident macrophages. Initially, the formation of the protein corona significantly reduces the nanocatalysts' activity, but this activity can be partially recovered in endosomal conditions due to the proteolytic degradation of the corona. Overall, the research reveals the complex relationship between physisorbed proteins and the catalytic characteristics of specific metal oxide nanoparticles, providing design parameters for optimizing nanocatalysts in complex biological environments.

Harnessing nanomedicine for modulating microglial states in the central nervous system disorders: Challenges and opportunities

Microglia are essential for maintaining homeostasis and responding to pathological events in the central nervous system (CNS). Their dynamic and multidimensional states in different environments are pivotal factors in various CNS disorders. However, therapeutic modulation of microglial states is challenging due to the intricate balance these cells maintain in the CNS environment and the blood-brain barrier's restriction of drug delivery. Nanomedicine presents a promising avenue for addressing these challenges, offering a method for the targeted and efficient modulation of microglial states. This review covers the challenges faced in microglial therapeutic modulation and potential use of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems. We provide an in-depth examination of nanoparticle applications for modulating microglial states in a range of CNS disorders, encompassing neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases, infections, traumatic injuries, stroke, tumors, chronic pain, and psychiatric conditions. This review highlights the recent advancements and future prospects in nanomedicine for microglial modulation, paving the way for future research and clinical applications of therapeutic interventions in CNS disorders.

Impact of polyethylene nanoplastics on human intestinal cells

Polyethylene (PE) is one of the most widely used plastics in the world. Its degradation leads to the production of small particles including microplastics and nanoplastics (NPs). Plastic particles' presence poses a health risk. The aim of this work was to investigate the toxicity of two model surfactant-free PE NPs prepared by polymerization of ethylene from cationic and anionic water-soluble initiators on human cell lines Caco-2 and HT29-MTX. After physicochemical characterization, their acute and subacute toxicity profile, including cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity, was evaluated on both cell lines. Results showed a size increase of PE NPs in culture medium. Zeta potential values close to -10 mV were no longer dependent on the initiator charge after adsorption of serum components in culture medium. However, the cellular toxicity of the cationic and anionic PE NPs was very different. A time-and-concentration dependent cytotoxic, oxidative, and genotoxic effects on Caco-2 cells were only observed for PE NPs prepared with cationic initiators. No toxicity was observed on HT29-MTX, likely due to the protective mucus layer. Genotoxicity correlated with oxidative stress of some PE NPs on Caco-2 cells was observed from a concentration of 0.1 mg.mL-1 after 48-h exposure.

Augmenting Neutrophil Extracellular Traps with Carbonized Polymer Dots: A Potential Treatment for Bacterial Sepsis

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that can progress to septic shock as the body's extreme response to pathogenesis damages its own vital organs. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) accounts for 50% of nosocomial infections, which are clinically treated with antibiotics. However, methicillin-resistant strains (MRSA) have emerged and can withstand harsh antibiotic treatment. To address this problem, curcumin (CCM) is employed to prepare carbonized polymer dots (CPDs) through mild pyrolysis. Contrary to curcumin, the as-formed CCM-CPDs are highly biocompatible and soluble in aqueous solution. Most importantly, the CCM-CPDs induce the release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) from the neutrophils, which entrap and eliminate microbes. In an MRSA-induced septic mouse model, it is observed that CCM-CPDs efficiently suppress bacterial colonization. Moreover, the intrinsic antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anticoagulation activities resulting from the preserved functional groups of the precursor molecule on the CCM-CPDs prevent progression to severe sepsis. As a result, infected mice treated with CCM-CPDs show a significant decrease in mortality even through oral administration. Histological staining indicates negligible organ damage in the MRSA-infected mice treated with CCM-CPDs. It is believed that the in vivo studies presented herein demonstrate that multifunctional therapeutic CPDs hold great potential against life-threatening infectious diseases.

Advances in biodistribution of gold nanoparticles: the influence of size, surface charge, and route of administration

To improve the translational and clinical applications of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in medicine there is a need for better understanding of physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles in relation to the systemic parameters andin-vivoperformance. This review presents the influence of physicochemical properties (surface charges and size) and route of administration on the biodistribution of GNPs. The role of protein corona (PC) (a unique biological identifier) as a barrier to biodistribution of GNPs, and the advances in engineered GNPs towards improving biodistribution are presented. Proteins can easily adsorb on charged (anionic and cationic) functionalized GNPs in circulation and shape the dynamics of their biodistribution. Non-ionic coatings such as PEG experience accelerated blood clearance (ABC) due to immunogenic response. While zwitterionic coatings provide stealth effects to formation of PC on the GNPs. GNPs with sizes less than 50 nm were found to circulate to several organs while the route of administration of the GNPs determines the serum protein that adsorbs on the nanoparticles.

Albumin-Based Hydrogel Films Covalently Cross-Linked with Oxidized Gellan with Encapsulated Curcumin for Biomedical Applications

Bovine serum albumin (BSA) hydrogels are non-immunogenic, low-cost, biocompatible, and biodegradable. In order to avoid toxic cross-linking agents, gellan was oxidized with NaIO4 to obtain new functional groups like dialdehydes for protein-based hydrogel cross-linking. The formed dialdehyde groups were highlighted with FT-IR and NMR spectroscopy. This paper aims to investigate hydrogel films for biomedical applications obtained by cross-linking BSA with oxidized gellan (OxG) containing immobilized β-cyclodextrin-curcumin inclusion complex (β-CD-Curc) The β-CD-Curc improved the bioavailability and solubility of Curc and was prepared at a molar ratio of 2:1. The film's structure and morphology were evaluated using FT-IR spectroscopy and SEM. The swelling degree (Q%) values of hydrogel films depend on hydrophilicity and pH, with higher values at pH = 7.4. Additionally, the conversion index of -NH2 groups into Schiff bases increases with an increase in OxG amount. The polymeric matrix provides protection for Curc, is non-cytotoxic, and enhances antioxidant activity. At pH = 5.5, the skin permeability and release efficiency of encapsulated curcumin were higher than at pH = 7.4 because of the interaction of free aldehyde and carboxylic groups from hydrogels with amine groups from proteins present in the skin membrane, resulting in a better film adhesion and more efficient curcumin release.

Tumor versus Tumor Cell Targeting in Metal-Based Nanoparticles for Cancer Theranostics

The application of metal-based nanoparticles (mNPs) in cancer therapy and diagnostics (theranostics) has been a hot research topic since the early days of nanotechnology, becoming even more relevant in recent years. However, the clinical translation of this technology has been notably poor, with one of the main reasons being a lack of understanding of the disease and conceptual errors in the design of mNPs. Strikingly, throughout the reported studies to date on in vivo experiments, the concepts of "tumor targeting" and "tumor cell targeting" are often intertwined, particularly in the context of active targeting. These misconceptions may lead to design flaws, resulting in failed theranostic strategies. In the context of mNPs, tumor targeting can be described as the process by which mNPs reach the tumor mass (as a tissue), while tumor cell targeting refers to the specific interaction of mNPs with tumor cells once they have reached the tumor tissue. In this review, we conduct a critical analysis of key challenges that must be addressed for the successful targeting of either tumor tissue or cancer cells within the tumor tissue. Additionally, we explore essential features necessary for the smart design of theranostic mNPs, where 'smart design' refers to the process involving advanced consideration of the physicochemical features of the mNPs, targeting motifs, and physiological barriers that must be overcome for successful tumor targeting and/or tumor cell targeting.

Regulating the structural polymorphism and protein corona composition of phytantriol-based lipid nanoparticles using choline ionic liquids

Lipid-based lyotropic liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs) face stability challenges in biological fluids during clinical translation. Ionic Liquids (ILs) have emerged as effective solvent additives for tuning the structure of LCNP's and enhancing their stability. We investigated the effect of a library of 21 choline-based biocompatible ILs with 9 amino acid anions as well as 10 other organic/inorganic anions during the preparation of phytantriol (PHY)-based LCNPs, followed by incubation in human serum and serum proteins. Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) results show that the phase behaviour of the LCNPs depends on the IL concentration and anion structure. Incubation with human serum led to a phase transition from the inverse bicontinuous cubic (Q2) to the inverse hexagonal (H2) mesophase, influenced by the specific IL present. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and proteomics analysis of selected samples, including PHY control and those with choline glutamate, choline hexanoate, and choline geranate, identified abundant proteins in the protein corona, including albumin, apolipoproteins, and serotransferrin. The composition of the protein corona varied among samples, shedding light on the intricate interplay between ILs, internal structure and surface chemistry of LCNPs, and biological fluids.

pH-Dependent HEWL-AuNPs Interactions: Optical Study

Optical methods (spectroscopy, spectrofluorometry, dynamic light scattering, and refractometry) were used to study the change in the state of hen egg-white lysozyme (HEWL), protein molecules, and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in aqueous colloids with changes in pH, and the interaction of protein molecules with nanoparticles was also studied. It was shown that changing pH may be the easiest way to control the protein corona on gold nanoparticles. In a colloid of nanoparticles, both in the presence and absence of protein, aggregation-deaggregation, and in a protein colloid, monomerization-dimerization-aggregation are the main processes when pH is changed. A specific point at pH 7.5, where a transition of the colloidal system from one state to another is observed, has been found using all the optical methods mentioned. It has been shown that gold nanoparticles can stabilize HEWL protein molecules at alkaline pH while maintaining enzymatic activity, which can be used in practice. The data obtained in this manuscript allow for the state of HEWL colloids and gold nanoparticles to be monitored using one or two simple and accessible optical methods.

Advances in smart delivery of magnetic field-targeted drugs in cardiovascular diseases

Magnetic Drug Targeting (MDT) is of particular interest to researchers because of its good loading efficiency, targeting accuracy, and versatile use in vivo. Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) is a global chronic disease with a high mortality rate, and the development of more precise and effective treatments is imminent. A growing number of studies have begun to explore the feasibility of MDT in CVD, but an up-to-date systematic summary is still lacking. This review discusses the current research status of MDT from guiding magnetic fields, magnetic nanocarriers, delivery channels, drug release control, and safety assessment. The current application status of MDT in CVD is also critically introduced. On this basis, new insights into the existing problems and future optimization directions of MDT are further highlighted.

Protein Corona Formation on Lipid Nanoparticles Negatively Affects the NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

The interaction between lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) and serum proteins, giving rise to a unique identification in the form of the protein corona, has been shown to be associated with novel recognition by cell receptors. The presence of the corona enveloping the nanoparticle strongly affects the interplay with immune cells. The immune responses mediated by protein corona can affect nanoparticle toxicity and targeting capabilities. But the intracellular signaling of LNPs after corona formation resulting in the change of nanoparticles' ability to provoke immune responses remains unclear. Therefore, a more systematic and delineated approach must be considered to present the correlation between corona complexes and the shift in nanoparticle immunogenicity. Here, we studied and reported the inhibiting effect of the absorbed proteins on the LNPs on the NLRP3 inflammasome activation, a key intracellular protein complex that modulates several inflammatory responses. Ionizable lipid as a component of LNP was observed to play an important role in modulating the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in serum-free conditions. However, in the presence of serum proteins, the corona layer on LNPs caused a significant reduction in the inflammasome activation. Reduction in the lysosomal rupture after treatment with corona-LNPs significantly reduced inflammasome activation. Furthermore, a strong reduction of cellular uptake in macrophages after the corona formation was observed. On inspecting the uptake mechanisms in macrophages using transport inhibitors, lipid formulation was found to play a critical role in determining the endocytic pathways for the LNPs in macrophages. This study highlights the need to critically analyze the protein interactions with nanomaterials and their concomitant adaptability with immune cells to evaluate nano-bio surfaces and successfully design nanomaterials for biological applications.

Surface antibody changes protein corona both in human and mouse serum but not final opsonization and elimination of targeted polymeric nanoparticles

BACKGROUND

Nanoparticles represent one of the most important innovations in the medical field. Among nanocarriers, polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) attracted much attention due to their biodegradability, biocompatibility, and capacity to increase efficacy and safety of encapsulated drugs. Another important improvement in the use of nanoparticles as delivery systems is the conjugation of a targeting agent that enables the nanoparticles to accumulate in a specific tissue. Despite these advantages, the clinical translation of therapeutic approaches based on nanoparticles is prevented by their interactions with blood proteins. In fact, the so-formed protein corona (PC) drastically alters the biological identity of the particles. Adsorbed activated proteins of the complement cascade play a pivotal role in the clearance of nanoparticles, making them more easily recognized by macrophages, leading to their rapid elimination from the bloodstream and limiting their efficacy. Since the mouse is the most used preclinical model for human disease, this work compared human and mouse PC formed on untargeted PNPs (uPNPs) and targeted PNPs (tPNPs), paying particular attention to complement activation.

RESULTS

Mouse and human serum proteins adsorbed differently to PNPs. The differences in the binding of mouse complement proteins are minimal, whereas human complement components strongly distinguish the two particles. This is probably due to the human origin of the Fc portion of the antibody used as targeting agent on tPNPs. tPNPs and uPNPs mainly activate complement via the classical and alternative pathways, respectively, but this pattern did not affect their binding and internalization in macrophages and only a limited consumption of the activity of the human complement system was documented.

CONCLUSIONS

The results clearly indicate the presence of complement proteins on PNPs surface but partially derived from an unspecific deposition rather than an effective complement activation. The presence of a targeting antibody favors the activation of the classical pathway, but its absence allows an increased activation of the alternative pathway. This results in similar opsonization of both PNPs and similar phagocytosis by macrophages, without an impairment of the activity of circulating complement system and, consequently, not enhancing the susceptibility to infection.

Recent Advancements and Strategies for Overcoming the Blood-Brain Barrier Using Albumin-Based Drug Delivery Systems to Treat Brain Cancer, with a Focus on Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly aggressive malignant tumor, and the most prevalent primary malignant tumor affecting the brain and central nervous system. Recent research indicates that the genetic profile of GBM makes it resistant to drugs and radiation. However, the main obstacle in treating GBM is transporting drugs through the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Albumin is a versatile biomaterial for the synthesis of nanoparticles. The efficiency of albumin-based delivery systems is determined by their ability to improve tumor targeting and accumulation. In this review, we will discuss the prevalence of human glioblastoma and the currently adopted treatment, as well as the structure and some essential functions of the BBB, to transport drugs through this barrier. We will also mention some aspects related to the blood-tumor brain barrier (BTBB) that lead to poor treatment efficacy. The properties and structure of serum albumin were highlighted, such as its role in targeting brain tumors, as well as the progress made until now regarding the techniques for obtaining albumin nanoparticles and their functionalization, in order to overcome the BBB and treat cancer, especially human glioblastoma. The albumin drug delivery nanosystems mentioned in this paper have improved properties and can overcome the BBB to target brain tumors.

Blood Compatibility of Drug-Inorganic Hybrid in Human Blood: Red Blood Cell Hitchhiking and Soft Protein Corona

A drug-delivery system consisting of an inorganic host-layered double hydroxide (LDH)-and an anticancer drug-methotrexate (MTX)-was prepared via the intercalation route (MTX-LDH), and its hematocompatibility was investigated. Hemolysis, a red blood cell counting assay, and optical microscopy revealed that the MTX-LDH had no harmful toxic effect on blood cells. Both scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy exhibited that the MTX-LDH particles softly landed on the concave part inred blood cells without serious morphological changes of the cells. The time-dependent change in the surface charge and hydrodynamic radius of MTX-LDH in the plasma condition demonstrated that the proteins can be gently adsorbed on the MTX-LDH particles, possibly through protein corona, giving rise to good colloidal stability. The fluorescence quenching assay was carried out to monitor the interaction between MTX-LDH and plasma protein, and the result showed that the MTX-LDH had less dynamic interaction with protein compared with MTX alone, due to the capsule moiety of the LDH host. It was verified by a quartz crystal microbalance assay that the surface interaction between MTX-LDH and protein was reversible and reproducible, and the type of protein corona was a soft one, having flexibility toward the biological environment.

A Fast and Reliable Method Based on QCM-D Instrumentation for the Screening of Nanoparticle/Blood Protein Interactions

The interactions that nanoparticles have with blood proteins are crucial for their fate in vivo. Such interactions result in the formation of the protein corona around the nanoparticles, and studying them aids in nanoparticle optimization. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) can be used for this study. The present work proposes a QCM-D method to study the interactions on polymeric nanoparticles with three different human blood proteins (albumin, fibrinogen and γ-globulin) by monitoring the frequency shifts of sensors immobilizing the selected proteins. Bare PEGylated and surfactant-coated poly-(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles are tested. The QCM-D data are validated with DLS and UV-Vis experiments in which changes in the size and optical density of nanoparticle/protein blends are monitored. We find that the bare nanoparticles have a high affinity towards fibrinogen and γ-globulin, with measured frequency shifts around -210 Hz and -50 Hz, respectively. PEGylation greatly reduces these interactions (frequency shifts around -5 Hz and -10 Hz for fibrinogen and γ-globulin, respectively), while the surfactant appears to increase them (around -240 Hz and -100 Hz and -30 Hz for albumin). The QCM-D data are confirmed by the increase in the nanoparticle size over time (up to 3300% in surfactant-coated nanoparticles), measured by DLS in protein-incubated samples, and by the trends of the optical densities, measured by UV-Vis. The results indicate that the proposed approach is valid for studying the interactions between nanoparticles and blood proteins, and the study paves the way for a more comprehensive analysis of the whole protein corona.

Nanotechnology Involved in Treating Urinary Tract Infections: An Overview

Considered as the most frequent contaminations that do not require hospitalization, urinary tract infections (UTIs) are largely known to cause significant personal burdens on patients. Although UTIs overall are highly preventable health issues, the recourse to antibiotics as drug treatments for these infections is a worryingly spread approach that should be addressed and gradually overcome in a contemporary, modernized healthcare system. With a virtually alarming global rise of antibiotic resistance overall, nanotechnologies may prove to be the much-needed 'lifebuoy' that will eventually suppress this prejudicial phenomenon. This review aims to present the most promising, currently known nano-solutions, with glimpses on clinical and epidemiological aspects of the UTIs, prospective diagnostic instruments, and non-antibiotic treatments, all of these engulfed in a comprehensive overview.