Honokiol-Loaded Nanoemulsion for Glioblastoma Treatment: Statistical Optimization, Physicochemical Characterization, and an In Vitro Toxicity Assay

Quality by design enabled development & in-vitro assessment of a Nanoemulgel formulation for Nose-to-Brain delivery of Nintedanib for glioblastoma multiforme treatment

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a deadly malignant brain tumor that spreads uncontrollably and invades the surrounding brain parenchyma. GBM treatment remains challenging due to the rigid blood-brain barrier, limiting therapeutic entry into the brain. Therefore, the current study focused on formulating a Nintedanib (Nint) loaded in-situ Nanoemulgel (Nint-Nanoemulgel) and exploring its permeation and therapeutic potential under in-vitro models to address these limitations. Nint-Nanoemulgel was optimized through the QbD-enabled Box-Behnken design. Optimized Nint-Nanoemulgel revealed significant globule size (27.4 ± 0.8  nm), PDI (0.17 ± 0.01), % encapsulation efficiency (93.5 ± 3.5 %), zeta potential (-4.7 ± 0.6 mV), %T (98.2 ± 0.2 %), pH (6.0 ± 0.2), and viscosity (2.59 ± 0.24 cP) at 25 °C. A cumulativein-vitro release study revealed 87.4 ± 1.9 % Nint release through Nanoemulgel after 12 h while 90.1 ± 2.1 % release after 24 h.The cytotoxicity potential of developed Nint-Nanoemulgel was screened in GBM cell lines, demonstrating a > 2-fold reduction in IC50 than plain Nint. However, after treatment with 100 µM of Nint-Nanoemulgel, % growth inhibition was found to be 91.0 ± 1.0 %, 92.1 ± 1.3 %, and 82.7 ± 1.0 % in LN229, U87, and U138 cell lines, respectively. Further,in-vitro cellular uptake exhibited significant coumarin cellular internalization through nanoformulations against coumarin solution. Moreover, clonogenic and scratch assay studies demonstrated the ability of Nint-NE to inhibit cell proliferation and colony formation. However, the outcomes of the live-dead assay demonstrated more cell death in Nint-nanoformulation-treated spheroids than in Nint-treated spheroids. Nint-Nanoemulgel improved intracellular permeation and demonstrated a 2-fold increase in Nint transport across the RPMI-2650 epithelial monolayer. Finally, favorable outcomes of intranasal Nint-Nanoemulgel could provide a novel avenue for the safe and effective delivery of Nint in GBM patients.

Optimising Cannabidiol Delivery: Improving Water Solubility and Permeability Through Phospholipid Complexation

Cannabidiol (CBD) has demonstrated therapeutic potential in treating epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Crohn's diseases. Despite its promising effects and analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and anxiolytic properties, oral CBD's full potential is hindered by poor water solubility (0.7-10 μg/mL), low permeability, and chemical instability. This study aimed to enhance CBD's dissolution, stability, and gastrointestinal (GI) permeability by forming a CBD-phospholipid complex (CBD-PLC). We hypothesised that CBD-PLC would enhance CBD's hydrophilicity, thus improving GI barrier permeability. This study involved screening an optimal phospholipid (PL) using a Design of Experiments (DoE) approach to prepare CBD-PLC with nanosized droplets (194.3 nm). Dissolution studies revealed significantly enhanced release rates for CBD-PLC-44.7% at 2 h and 67.1% at 3 h-compared to 0% for pure CBD and 7.2% for a physical mixture (PM). Cellular uptake studies showed that at 30 µM, CBD-PLC exhibited 32.7% higher apparent permeability coefficients (Papp), nearly doubling at 40 µM compared to pure CBD. Cytotoxicity tests confirmed safety over 24 h, while 12-month stability tests demonstrated consistent performance under varied conditions. The results indicate that CBD-PLC improves CBD's solubility, permeability, and stability, offering a promising strategy to address the limitations of oral CBD delivery systems.

Delivery of Magnolia bark extract in nanoemulsions formed by high and low energy methods improves the bioavailability of Honokiol and Magnolol

Honokiol (HK) and Magnolol (MG), isomers found in Magnolia officinalis bark extract (MBE), possess bioactive properties attributed to their biphenolic structure. However, their low polarity results in poor oral absorption, limiting their bioavailability. To enhance their systemic absorption after passing through the digestive tract, efficient carrier systems are essential. Nanoemulsions (NE) have been suggested to enhance their solubility in the oily core and enable passive diffusion through absorptive cells. Surfactants ensure stability by reducing surface tension between hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds. In this study we report the preparation of NE containing HK and MG using high and low-energy methods (SNEDDS); we aimed to improve their absorption after oral administration. Results demonstrated that NE enhanced their bioavailability significantly. Compared to the free forms, HK bioavailability increased by 3.47 times, and MG by 3.03 times. SNEDDS further increased HK bioavailability by 3.98 times and MG by 7.97 times compared to their free forms.

Nanotherapy of Glioblastoma-Where Hope Grows

Localization in the central nervous system, diffuse growth, the presence of stem cells, and numerous resistance mechanisms, all make glioblastoma (GBM) an incurable tumor. The standard treatment of GBM consisting of surgery; radio- and chemotherapy with temozolomide provides insufficient therapeutic benefit and needs to be updated with effective modern solutions. One of the most promising and intensively explored therapeutic approaches against GBM is the use of nanotherapy. The first, and so far only, nanoparticle-based therapy approved for GBM treatment is NanoThermTM. It is based on iron oxide nanoparticles and the thermal ablation of the tumor with a magnetic field. Numerous other types of nanotherapies are being evaluated, including polymer and lipid-based nanoformulations, nanodiscs, dendrimers, and metallic, silica, or bioderived nanoparticles, among others. The advantages of these nanoscale drug carriers include improved penetration across the blood-brain barrier, targeted drug delivery, biocompatibility, and lower systemic toxicity, while major problems with their implementation involve scaling up their production and high costs. Nevertheless, taking all the impressive benefits of nanotherapies into consideration, it seems obvious that the combined effort of the scientific world will need to be taken to tackle these challenges and implement these novel therapies into clinics, giving hope that the battle against GBM can finally be won.

Application of the Box-Behnken Design in the Development of Amorphous PVP K30-Phosphatidylcholine Dispersions for the Co-Delivery of Curcumin and Hesperetin Prepared by Hot-Melt Extrusion

Background: Curcumin and hesperetin are plant polyphenols known for their poor solubility. To address this limitation, we prepared amorphous PVP K30-phosphatidylcholine dispersions via hot-melt extrusion. Methods: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of the amounts of active ingredients and phosphatidylcholine, as well as the process temperature, on the performance of the dispersions. A Box-Behnken design was employed to assess these factors. Solid-state characterization and biopharmaceutical studies were then conducted. X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) was used to confirm the amorphous nature of the dispersions, while differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) provided insight into the miscibility of the systems. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was employed to assess the intermolecular interactions. The apparent solubility and dissolution profiles of the systems were studied in phosphate buffer at pH 6.8. In vitro permeability across the gastrointestinal tract and blood-brain barrier was evaluated using the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay. Results: The quantities of polyphenols and phospholipids were identified as significant factors influencing the biopharmaceutical performance of the systems. Solid-state analysis confirmed the formation of amorphous dispersions and the development of interactions among components. Notably, a significant improvement in solubility was observed, with formulations exhibiting distinct release patterns for the active compounds. Furthermore, the in vitro permeability through the gastrointestinal tract and blood-brain barrier was enhanced. Conclusions: The findings suggest that amorphous PVP K30-phosphatidylcholine dispersions have the potential to improve the biopharmaceutical properties of curcumin and hesperetin.

Quantification of the Most Effective X-Ray Dosage for Inhibiting Invasion of Glioma Cell Line

BACKGROUND

One key feature that distinguishes cancerous cell populations from their normal counterparts is a heightened tendency towards uncontrolled growth and invasive activity. Therapeutic techniques like radiotherapy can impact the viability and invasive behavior of cancer cells by modifying the structure of DNA and inducing programmed cell death.

METHODS

This research is an experimental study and involved a comprehensive investigation into the effects of 6MV X-ray radiotherapy on various absorbed doses (ranging from 4 to 10 Gy by steps 2Gy) on toxicity, migration, and colony formation in C6 glioblastoma cellular cultures.

RESULTS

Our detailed analysis revealed that the cytotoxic responses increased in a dose-dependent manner, while there was a significant decrease in both the ability to migrate and form colonies in the C6 cell line.

CONCLUSIONS

This thorough examination provides new insights into the way malignant cell populations respond to ionizing radiation in a dose-dependent manner within a clinical setting. By directly impacting cellular functions and causing disturbances, this occurrence leads to a slowing down of disease progression.

Contemporary strategies in glioblastoma therapy: Recent developments and innovations

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) represents one of the most prevailing and aggressive primary brain tumors among adults. Despite advances in therapeutic approaches, the complex microenvironment of GBM poses significant challenges in its optimal therapy, which are attributed to immune evasion, tumor repopulation by stem cells, and limited drug penetration across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising avenue for GBM treatment, offering biosafety, sustained drug release, enhanced solubility, and improved BBB penetrability. In this review, a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems for GBM therapy is emphasized. The conventional and novel treatment modalities for GBM and the potential of nanocarriers to overcome existing limitations are comprehensively covered. Furthermore, the updates in the clinical landscape of GBM therapeutics are presented in addition to the current status of drugs and patents in the same context. Through a critical evaluation of existing literature, the therapeutic prospect and limitations of nanocarrier-based drug delivery strategies are highlighted offering insights into future research directions and clinical translation.

A review of natural products and small-molecule therapeutics acting on central nervous system malignancies: Approaches for drug development, targeting pathways, clinical trials, and challenges

In 2021, the World Health Organization released the fifth edition of the central nervous system (CNS) tumor classification. This classification uses histopathology and molecular pathogenesis to group tumors into more biologically and molecularly defined entities. The prognosis of brain cancer, particularly malignant tumors, has remained poor worldwide, approximately 308,102 new cases of brain and other CNS tumors were diagnosed in the year 2020, with an estimated 251,329 deaths. The cost and time-consuming nature of studies to find new anticancer agents makes it necessary to have well-designed studies. In the present study, the pathways that can be targeted for drug development are discussed in detail. Some of the important cellular origins, signaling, and pathways involved in the efficacy of bioactive molecules against CNS tumorigenesis or progression, as well as prognosis and common approaches for treatment of different types of brain tumors, are reviewed. Moreover, different study tools, including cell lines, in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trial challenges, are discussed. In addition, in this article, natural products as one of the most important sources for finding new chemotherapeutics were reviewed and over 700 reported molecules with efficacy against CNS cancer cells are gathered and classified according to their structure. Based on the clinical trials that have been registered, very few of these natural or semi-synthetic derivatives have been studied in humans. The review can help researchers understand the involved mechanisms and design new goal-oriented studies for drug development against CNS malignancies.

New Avenues and Major Achievements in Phytocompounds Research for Glioblastoma Therapy

Phytocompounds have been evaluated for their anti-glioblastoma actions for decades, with promising results from preclinical studies but only limited translation into clinics. Indeed, by targeting multiple signaling pathways deregulated in cancer, they often show high efficacy in the in vitro studies, but their poor bioavailability, low tumor accumulation, and rapid clearance compromise their efficacy in vivo. Here, we present the new avenues in phytocompound research for the improvement of glioblastoma therapy, including the ways to enhance the response to temozolomide using phytochemicals, the current focus on phytocompound-based immunotherapy, or the use of phytocompounds as photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy. Moreover, we present new, intensively evaluated approaches, such as chemical modifications of phytochemicals or encapsulation into numerous types of nanoformulations, to improve their bioavailability and delivery to the brain. Finally, we present the clinical trials evaluating the role of phytocompounds or phytocompound-derived drugs in glioblastoma therapy and the less studied phytocompounds or plant extracts that have only recently been found to possess promising anti-glioblastoma properties. Overall, recent advancements in phytocompound research are encouraging; however, only with more 3D glioblastoma models, in vivo studies, and clinical trials it is possible to upgrade the role of phytocompounds in glioblastoma treatment to a satisfactory level.

In-Vitro and in-Vivo Evaluation of the Developed Curcumin-Cyclosporine-Loaded Nanoemulgel for the Management of Rheumatoid Arthritis

BACKGROUND

Topical nanogel-based formulations have shown potential in the management of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The aim of this research work was to explore the synergistic effect of Curcumin (CUR) and Cyclosporine (CYC) in combination via a topical route for the management of RA.

METHODS

The CUR+CYC loaded nanoemulsion was developed using the spontaneous emulsification technique and was subsequently incorporated into Carbopol® Ultrez 30-NF gel. The effect of the developed formulation on levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) was evaluated using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced RAW 264.7 cell culture model. The anti-arthritic activity was evaluated in a Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) induced arthritic rat model.

RESULTS

The optimized nanoemulgel (CUR + CYC NE gel) exhibited average globule size of 15.32 nm ±2.7 nm, poly-dispersity index of 0.181 ± 0.034 and zeta potential of -16.3 mV ± 0.9 mV. The cumulative drug release from ex-vivo diffusion studies on porcine ear skin was 99.189% ± 1.419% at the of 24 h and 99.177% ± 1.234% at the end of 18 h for CUR and CYC, respectively. The cell culture studies revealed that the formulation was able to significantly lower (p < .001) the levels of IL-6 and TNF-α, inhibited prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) while significantly elevating (p < .001) the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10). The gel was found to be non-irritating and showed the inhibition of paw edema and substantial reduction of arthritic symptoms in an arthritic rat model as compared to commercial and other conventional alternatives.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the potential of the developed nanoemulgel for the management of RA by enhancing the topical permeation of CUR and CYC.

Potential of Nanocarrier-Associated Approaches for Better Therapeutic Intervention in the Management of Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma, commonly known as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is one of the deadliest and most invasive types of brain cancer. Two factors account for the majority of the treatment limitations for GBM. First, the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) renders malignancy treatment ineffective, leading to recurrence without full recovery. Second, several adverse effects are associated with the drugs used in conventional GBM treatment. Recent studies have developed nanocarrier systems, such as liposomes, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, nanosuspensions, nanoemulsions, nanostructured lipid carriers, solid lipid nanocarriers, metal particles, and silica nanoparticles, which allow drug-loaded formulations to penetrate the BBB more effectively. This has opened up new possibilities for overcoming therapy issues. Extensive and methodical searches of databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and others were conducted to gather relevant literature for this work, using precise keyword combinations such as "GBM," "brain tumor," and "nanocarriers." This review provides deep insights into the administration of drugs using nanocarriers for the management of GBM and explores new advancements in nanotechnology. It also highlights how scientific developments can be explained in connection with hopeful findings about the potential of nanocarriers for the future successful management of GBM.

Development and preclinical assessment of nanoemulgel loaded with phytoconstituents for the management of rheumatoid arthritis

In recent years, natural ingredients have gained importance for therapeutic treatment due to their minimal toxicity. However, the delivery of these phytoconstituents poses a challenge to provide better efficacy. Current research reports the development of nanoemulgel (NEG) loaded with ginger oleoresin (GOR) and lipid guggul extract (LGE) for the management of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The nanoemulsion (NE) was developed using the spontaneous emulsification technique by the pseudo-ternary method. The optimized nanoemulsion exhibited globule size of 16.08 ± 2.55 nm, PDI of 0.187 ± 0.06, and zeta potential of - 22.4 ± 0.31 mV. The cumulative release from in vitro diffusion studies at pH 7.4 was about 99.72 ± 3.47%, 57.98 ± 2.11%, and 86.42 ± 5.13% of 6-gingerol, E-guggulsterone, and Z-guggulsterone respectively at the end of 24 h. The ex vivo studies on porcine ear skin showed sustained release with 92.8 ± 3.21% for 6-gingerol, 55.61 ± 0.91% for E-guggulsterone, and 84.2 ± 4.22% for Z-guggulsterone released at the end of 24 h. The cell culture studies on RAW 264.7 cells indicated a robust inhibition of LPS-induced IL-6 and TNF-α production indicating its efficacy in the management of RA. The preclinical studies on male Wistar rats suggest that the developed NEG exhibited a comparable decrease in paw edema inflammation as compared to the marketed diclofenac sodium gel. These encouraging results demonstrate the potential of the developed nanoemulgel containing combination of GOR and LGE for the management of RA.

A Comprehensive Study on Peppermint Oil and Cinnamon Oil as Nanoemulsion: Preparation, Stability, Cytotoxicity, Antimicrobial, Antifungal, and Antioxidant Activity

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have shown that nanoemulsions prepared with essential oils have significant antimicrobial potential against multidrug-resistant pathogens due to increased chemical stability. Nanoemulsion also promotes controlled and sustained release, which increases their bioavailability and efficacy against multidrug-resistant bacteria.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity properties of cinnamon essential oil and peppermint essential oil as nanoemulsions compared to pure forms. For this purpose, analyses of the selected stable nanoemulsions were carried out.

METHOD

The droplet sizes and zeta potentials of peppermint essential oil nanoemulsions and cinnamon essential oil nanoemulsions were found to be 154.6±1.42 nm and -17.1±0.68 mV and 200.3±4.71 nm and -20.0±0.81 mV, respectively. Although the amount of essential oil used in nanoemulsions was 25% w/w, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities were found to be more effective compared to pure essential oils.

RESULTS

In cytotoxicity studies on the 3T3 cell line, both essential oil nanoemulsions showed higher cell viability than pure essential oils. At the same time, cinnamon essential oil nanoemulsions exhibited a higher antioxidant property than peppermint essential oil nanoemulsions and showed superiority in the antimicrobial susceptibility test conducted against four bacteria and two fungi. Cell viability tests determined that cinnamon essential oil nanoemulsions showed considerably higher cell viability compared to pure cinnamon essential oil.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicated that the prepared nanoemulsions in the current study might positively influence the dosing regimen and clinical outcomes of antibiotic therapy.

Nanotechnology-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Honokiol: Enhancing Therapeutic Potential and Overcoming Limitations

Honokiol (HNK) is a small-molecule polyphenol that has garnered considerable attention due to its diverse pharmacological properties, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, and anti-obesity effects. However, its clinical application is restricted by challenges such as low solubility, poor bioavailability, and rapid metabolism. To overcome these limitations, researchers have developed a variety of nano-formulations for HNK delivery. These nano-formulations offer advantages such as enhanced solubility, improved bioavailability, extended circulation time, and targeted drug delivery. However, existing reviews of HNK primarily focus on its clinical and pharmacological features, leaving a gap in the comprehensive evaluation of HNK delivery systems based on nanotechnology. This paper aims to bridge this gap by comprehensively reviewing different types of nanomaterials used for HNK delivery over the past 15 years. These materials encompass vesicle delivery systems, nanoparticles, polymer micelles, nanogels, and various other nanocarriers. The paper details various HNK nano-delivery strategies and summarizes their latest applications, development prospects, and future challenges. To compile this review, we conducted an extensive search using keywords such as "honokiol", "nanotechnology", and "drug delivery system" on reputable databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, covering the period from 2008 to 2023. Through this search, we identified and selected approximately 90 articles that met our specific criteria.

Lipid Nanoparticles: An Effective Tool to Improve the Bioavailability of Nutraceuticals

Nano-range bioactive colloidal carrier systems are envisaged to overcome the challenges associated with treatments of numerous diseases. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), one of the extensively investigated drug delivery systems, not only improve pharmacokinetic parameters, transportation, and chemical stability of encapsulated compounds but also provide efficient targeting and reduce the risk of toxicity. Over the last decades, nature-derived polyphenols, vitamins, antioxidants, dietary supplements, and herbs have received more attention due to their remarkable biological and pharmacological health and medical benefits. However, their poor aqueous solubility, compromised stability, insufficient absorption, and accelerated elimination impede research in the nutraceutical sector. Owing to the possibilities offered by various LNPs, their ability to accommodate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules and the availability of various preparation methods suitable for sensitive molecules, loading natural fragile molecules into LNPs offers a promising solution. The primary objective of this work is to explore the synergy between nature and nanotechnology, encompassing a wide range of research aimed at encapsulating natural therapeutic molecules within LNPs.

The Development of Magnolol-Loaded Intravenous Emulsion with Low Hepatotoxic Potential

Intestinal failure-associated liver disease (IFALD) is a severe liver injury occurring due to factors related to intestinal failure and parenteral nutrition administration. Different approaches are studied to reduce the risk or ameliorate the course of IFALD, including providing omega-3 fatty acids instead of soybean oil-based lipid emulsion or administering active compounds that exert a hepatoprotective effect. This study aimed to develop, optimize, and characterize magnolol-loaded intravenous lipid emulsion for parenteral nutrition. The preformulation studies allowed for chosen oils mixture of the highest capacity of magnolol solubilization. Then, magnolol-loaded SMOFlipid was developed using the passive incorporation method. The Box-Behnken design and response surface methodology were used to optimize the entrapment efficiency. The optimal formulation was subjected to short-term stress tests, and its effect on normal human liver cells and erythrocytes was determined using the MTT and hemolysis tests, respectively. The optimized magnolol-loaded SMOFlipid was characterized by the mean droplet diameter of 327.6 ± 2.9 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.12 ± 0.02 and zeta potential of -32.8 ± 1.2 mV. The entrapment efficiency of magnolol was above 98%, and pH and osmolality were sufficient for intravenous administration. The magnolol-loaded SMOFlipid samples showed a significantly lower toxic effect than bare SMOFlipid in the same concentration on THLE-2 cells, and revealed an acceptable hemolytic effect of 8.3%. The developed formulation was characterized by satisfactory stability. The in vitro studies showed the reduced cytotoxic effect of MAG-SMOF applied in high concentrations compared to bare SMOFlipid and the non-hemolytic effect on human blood cells. The magnolol-loaded SMOFlipid is promising for further development of hepatoprotective lipid emulsion for parenteral nutrition.

Multi-charged nanoemulsion for photodynamic treatment of glioblastoma cell line in 2D and 3D in vitro models

Multi-charged nanoemulsions (NE) were designed to deliver Cannabidiol (CBD), Indocyanine green (ICG), and Protoporphyrin (PpIX) to treat glioblastoma (GBM) through Photodynamic Therapy (PDT). The phase-inversion temperature (PIT) method resulted in a highly stable NE that can be scaled easily, with a six-month shelf-life. We observed the quasi-spherical morphology of the nanoemulsions without any unencapsulated material and that 89% (± 5.5%) of the material was encapsulated. All physicochemical properties were within the expected range for a nanostructured drug delivery system, making these multi-charged nanoemulsions promising for further research and development. NE-PIC (NE-Protoporphyrin + Indocyanine + CBD) was easily internalized on GBM cells after three hours of incubation. Nanoemulsion (NE and NE-PIC) did not result in significant cytotoxicity, even for GBM or non-tumorigenic cell lines (NHF). Phototoxicity was significantly higher for the U87MG cell than the T98G cell when exposed to: visible (430 nm) and infrared (810 nm) laser light, with a difference of about 20%. From 50 mJ.cm-2, the viability of GBM cell lines decreases significantly, ranging from 65% to 85%. The NE-PIC was also effective for inhibiting cell proliferation into a 3D spheroidal GBM cell model, which is promising for mimicking the tumor cell environment. Irradiation at 810 nm was more effective in treating spheroid due to its deeper penetration in complex structures. NE-PIC has the potential as a drug delivery system for photoinactivation and photo diagnostic of GBM cell lines, taking advantage of the versatility of its active components.