Box-Behnken Design of Experiments of Polycaprolactone Nanoparticles Loaded with Irinotecan Hydrochloride

Development and optimization of hydrogel-forming microneedles fabricated with 3d-printed molds for enhanced dermal diclofenac sodium delivery: a comprehensive in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo study

With the developing manufacturing technologies, the use of 3D printers in microneedle production is becoming widespread. Hydrogel-forming microneedles (HFMs), a variant of microneedles, demonstrate distinctive features such as a high loading capacity and controlled drug release. In this study, the conical microneedle master molds with approximately 500 μm needle height and 250 μm base diameter were created using a Stereolithography (SLA) 3D printer and were utilized to fabricate composite HFMs containing diclofenac sodium. Using Box-Behnken Design, the effects of different polymers on swelling index and mechanical strength of the developed HFMs were evaluated. The optimum HFMs were selected according to experimental design results with the aim of the highest mechanical strength with varying swelling indexes, which was needed to use 20% Gantrez S97 and 0.1% (F22), 0.42% (F23), and 1% (F24) hyaluronic acid. The skin penetration and drug release properties of the optimum formulations were assessed. Ex vivo studies were conducted on formulations to determine drug penetration and accumulation. F24, which has the highest mechanical strength and optimized swelling index, achieved the highest drug accumulation in the skin tissue (17.70 ± 3.66%). All optimum HFMs were found to be non-cytotoxic by the MTT cell viability test (> 70% cell viability). In in vivo studies, the efficacy of the F24 was assessed for the treatment of xylene-induced ear edema by contrasting it to the conventional dosage form. It was revealed that HFMs might be an improved replacement for conventional dosage forms in terms of dermal diseases such as actinic keratosis.

Amphiphilic mPEG-PLGA copolymer nanoparticles co-delivering colistin and niclosamide to treat colistin-resistant Gram-negative bacteria infections

Colistin is the last line of defense against multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative bacterial infections, yet it is restricted due to high drug resistance and toxicity. The combination therapy of colistin and niclosamide exhibits excellent synergistic antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria. How to co-deliver these two drugs with vastly different pharmacokinetic properties in sufficient amounts to the infection site is the core issue that must be resolved for the clinical translation of this drug combination. Here, we designed and prepared a nanosystem capable of co-loading colistin and niclosamide with different physicochemical properties into mPEG-PLGA nanoparticles (COL/NIC-mPEG-PLGA-NPs) to overcome the resistance of multiple colistin-resistant bacteria to colistin and alleviate its toxicity. Mechanistic studies revealed that the COL/NIC-mPEG-PLGA-NPs enhanced the affinity of delivered COL to the modified membrane of colistin-resistant bacteria. The increased membrane permeability caused by colistin promotes an influx of niclosamide, which reduces efflux pump activity and generates intracellular ROS stress, eliminating colistin-resistant bacteria. In addition, the nanoparticles proved non-toxic both in vitro and in vivo. Overall, our study has profound insights into the use of nanosystems with high biosafety for the treatment of infections caused by colistin-resistant bacteria.

Chitosan nanoparticle encapsulation of thymus capitatus essential oil: in vitro release, antioxidant, antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity in MDA-MB-231 cells

Thymus capitatus (Th. Ca) is known to treat mouth ulcers and respiratory infections in Cyprus. However, antioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxic potential of Th. Ca. EO on MDA-MB-231 cells and its' encapsulation into nanoparticles has not been well studied. Therefore, we aimed to analyze the antioxidant, antibacterial, cytotoxic potential, loading efficiency, and in vitro release profile of both Th. Ca. EO and Chitosan Nanoparticle (Ch. Np) - Th. Ca. EO. GC-MS analysis revealed 53.97% carvacrol, 14.53% borneol, and 12.09% sabinene presence in EO. The loading efficiency of Th. Ca. EO into Ch. Np. was calculated as 35.27% and the in vitro release profile reached a maximum of 68% in pH 7 for two weeks. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) assay showed that E. coli had an MIC50 of 0.3215 mg/ml while B. subtilis had an MIC50 of 0.5304 mg/ml. The antioxidant activity of the EO was assessed by performing a DPPH assay with an IC50 = 440 μg/ml. Trypan Blue Assay revealed that 60 µg/ml Th. Ca. EO significantly reduced the cell viability of MDA-MB-231 cells by 10.7% at 48h and 20.06% at 72h. Overall, Ch. Np. - Th. Ca. EO has shown a promising formulation for the pharmaceutical industry.

Toxicity optimization of green zinc oxide quantum dots in zebrafish using Box-Behnken design: a novel approach for safer nanoparticle synthesis

Zinc oxide quantum dots, also known as ZnO QDs, are highly desirable due to their numerous favorable characteristics, such as their beneficial photoluminescence, solubility in water, along with sunlight absorption. They are well-suited for use in biomedical applications, drugs, and bioimaging. However, study on the in-vivo toxicology of these QDs is needed before they can be used in humans. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are cheap, fast-growing, and similar to humans, which makes them ideal as in vivo model for studying the toxicity of nanomaterials. The toxicity investigations involving zinc oxide QDs (ZnO QDs) and zinc oxide bionanocomposite (ZnO BC) in zebrafish that were concentration-dependent are evaluated, and the Box-Behnken design (BBD) was utilized to optimize the results. To determine the proper dosage, a study on cell line as well as hemocompatibility was carried out prior to testing the toxic effects of ZnO QDs along with ZnO BC upon zebrafish. When administered at 2.5 μg/l of ZnO BC and 2 μg/l of ZnO QDs, neither ZnO BC nor ZnO QDs appeared to be toxic to embryos during hatching and development. The testing of larval behavior in visible light revealed a dose-dependent decrease in both the total diving distance as well as speed. Nevertheless, at ZnO BC and ZnO QDs levels >250 μg/l and >200 μg/l, respectively, notable effects were seen in zebrafish embryos. Hence, ZnO QDs and BC at low concentrations were notably nontoxic. In order to guarantee the safety of nanomaterials in bio applications, this research supports upcoming in-vivo imaging investigations on their harmful effects.

Preparation and characterization of soluplus-based nanosuspension for dissolution enhancement of indomethacin using ultrasonic assisted precipitation method for formulation and Box-Behnken design for optimization

OBJECTIVES

Nanosuspensions are increasingly recognized as a valuable technology for enhancing poorly water-soluble drugs' solubility and dissolution rate, thereby improving their bioavailability. In this study, we employed ultrasonic-assisted precipitation to fabricate nanosuspensions of indomethacin (IND), utilizing Soluplus® (Sol) as a stabilizing agent. Our objectives were driven by hypotheses centered on optimizing formulation variables and developing predictive models for optimal IND formulations.

SIGNIFICANCE

This research highlights the Box-Behnken design (BBD) as a powerful tool that optimizes the properties of IND nanosuspensions, thus significantly enhancing their dissolution rate.

METHODS

The impacts of the independent variables on the mean particle size (MPS), polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (ZP) were investigated using BBD. The optimized nanosuspension was freeze-dried with 3% trehalose to produce a dry nanosuspension (DNS). The DNS was characterized by SEM, DSC, XRPD, solubility, and dissolution.

RESULTS

The IND: Sol ratio and sonication power significantly affected the MPS and ZP of the nanosuspensions. The optimized formulation showed MPS, PDI, and ZP of 144.77 ± 6.68 nm, 0.26 ± 0.08, and -24.6 ± 1.90 mV, respectively. The DNS exhibited spherical particle morphology. The DSC and XRPD confirmed the amorphous state of IND with enhanced solubility and dissolution of IND. DNS showed a 3.7-fold increase in drug release in the first 15 min compared with raw IND.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated the critical role of BBD in accurately predicting the values of independent variables essential for formulating optimal nanosuspensions. These formulations possess specific properties that can be effectively integrated into various dosage forms tailored for different routes of administration.

Poly(allylamine)-adorned heptylcarboxymethyl galactomannan nanocarriers of canagliflozin for controlling type-2 diabetes: Optimization by Box-Behnken design and in vivo performance

In the past three decades, the prevalence of type-2 diabetes has arisen dramatically in countries of all income levels. A novel, most effective nanotechnology-based strategy may reduce the prevalence of diabetes. Recently, the shell-crosslinked polysaccharide-based micellar nanocarriers (MNCs) have shown great promise in terms of stability, controlled drug release, and improved in vivo performance. In this study, heptyl carboxymethyl guar gum was synthesized and characterized by ATR-FTIR, 1HNMR spectroscopy, surface charge, critical micelle concentration (23.9 μg/mL), and cytotoxicity analysis. Box-Behnken design was used to optimize the diameter, zeta potential, drug entrapment efficiency (DEE), and drug release characteristics of poly (allylamine)-crosslinked MNCs containing canagliflozin. The optimized MNCs revealed spherical morphology under TEM and had 149.3 nm diameter (PDI 21.2 %), +53.8 mV zeta potential, and 84 % DEE. The MNCs released about 63 % of the drug in 12 h under varying pH of the simulated gastrointestinal fluid. DSC and x-ray analyses suggested amorphous dispersion of drugs in the MNCs. CAM assay demonstrated the biocompatibility of the MNCs. The MNCs showed hemolysis of <1 %, 85 % mucin adsorption, and stability over three months. The MNCs demonstrated excellent anti-diabetic efficacy in streptozotocin-nicotinamide-induced diabetic rats, continuously lowering blood glucose levels up to 12 h.

In vitro and ex vivo evaluation of chitosan gel containing metformin-loaded polymeric nanoparticles for topical treatment of melanoma

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to prepare and evaluate chitosan (CS) gel containing metformin hydrochloride (MET)-loaded polycaprolactone (PCL) nanoparticles (NPs) for topical treatment of melanoma.

SIGNIFICANCE

Topical administration of MET-PCL NPs-CS gel improves penetration of drug, decreases side effects, and increases efficacy of treatment.

METHODS

MET-PCL NPs were prepared by double emulsion method. Particle size, charge, encapsulation efficiency (EE), release, and morphology were evaluated. MET-PCL NPs-CS gel formulation was characterized in terms of organoleptic properties, pH, gelling time, viscosity, spreadability, release, and morphology. Cytotoxicity was performed on B16F10 cells. Ex vivo permeability was done with pig skin.

RESULTS

The size, charge, and EE were found to be 180 ± 10 nm, -11.4 mV, and 93%. SEM images showed that NPs were spherical and smooth. An initial burst release followed by a slower release was observed. MET-PCL NPs-CS gel was found to be transparent. The pH was 4.9 ± 0.05. The gelation time was 1.6 ± 0.2 min. The viscosity results confirm pseudoplastic behavior of gel. The spreadability by % area was 392 ± 6.4 cm. The images showed that gelling network of CS gel was composed of suspended NPs. The viscosity was between 554 and 3503 cP. MET-PCL NPs-CS gel showed prolonged release up to 72 h. On B16F10 cells, gel showed higher cytotoxicity compared to MET solution. MET-PCL NPs-CS gel had twofold higher permeability in pig skin compared with MET-CS gel.

CONCLUSION

Topical administration of MET-PCL NPs-CS gel into the skin resulted in improved dermal penetration and this promising approach may be of value in effective treatment of melanoma and other skin cancers.

Preparation, characterisation and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of Baicalin microsponges

Baicalin, a flavonoid extracted from traditional Chinese medicine, Scutellaria baicalensis has significant anti-inflammatory effects. Microsponges are drug delivery systems that improve drug stability and slow the release rate. The combination of baicalin and the microsponges produced a new and stable system for its delivery, resulting in a novel formulation of baicalin. Baicalin microsponges (BM) were prepared using the quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method. Effects of the mass ratio of the polymer (ethylcellulose) to baicalin, the concentration of the emulsifier polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), the stirring speed on the encapsulation efficiency (EE), and yield of the microsponges were investigated by combining the one-factor test and Box-Behnken design (BBD). The preparation process was standardised using 2.61:1 mass ratio of ethyl cellulose to baicalin, 2.17% concentration of PVA, with stirring at 794 rpm. Optimised BM formulations were evaluated for the parameters of EE (54.06 ± 3.02)% and yield of (70.37 ± 2.41)%, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and in vitro cell evaluation. Results of the in vitro anti-inflammatory assay showed that baicalin microsponges-pretreated-lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7, mouse macrophages showed reduced inflammatory response, similar to that seen in baicalin-treated macrophages.

Preparation and Evaluation of Folate Modified PEG-PLLA Nanoparticles Loaded with Lycorine for Glioma Treatment

Lycorine is a kind of natural active ingredient with a strong antitumor effect. In this study, folate ligand-conjugated polyethylene glycol-block-poly(l-lactide) (PEG-PLLA) nanoparticles (FA-PEG-PLLA NPs) were designed to deliver lycorine to enhance its anti-glioma activity. The successful preparation of the FA-PEG-PLLA polymer was confirmed by 1H-NMR, FT-IR, XRD, TGA, and DSC. The optimal formulation for LYC@FA-PEG-PLLA NPs was determined by response surface analysis as follows: sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) of 1%, carrier material of 0.03 g, organic phase volume of 3 mL, and ultrasonic power of 20%. The LYC@FA-PEG-PLLA NPs exhibited an encapsulation efficiency of 83.58% and a particle size of 49.71 nm, demonstrating good stability. Hemolysis experiments, MTT assays, and cell scratch assays revealed excellent biocompatibility of FA-PEG-PLLA and superior anti-glioma activity of LYC@FA-PEG-PLLA NPs compared to the raw drug. Additionally, cell apoptosis assays, ROS experiments, and western blot analysis demonstrated that LYC@FA-PEG-PLLA NPs contributed to cell apoptosis by inducing ROS generation and increasing the expression of NF-κB inhibitory protein IκBα. These results suggested that LYC@FA-PEG-PLLA NPs hold promise for glioma treatment.

Ciprofloxacin- and levofloxacin-loaded nanoparticles efficiently suppressed fluoroquinolone resistance and biofilm formation in Acinetobacter baumannii

The spread of fluoroquinolone (FQ) resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii represents a critical health threat. This study aims to overcome FQ resistance in A. baumannii via the formulation of polymeric nanoFQs. Herein, 80 A. baumannii isolates were obtained from diverse clinical sources. All A. baumannii isolates showed high resistance to most of the investigated antimicrobials, including ciprofloxacin (CIP) and levofloxacin (LEV) (97.5%). FQ resistance-determining regions of the gyrA and parC genes were the most predominant resistant mechanism, harbored by 69 (86.3%) and 75 (93.8%) of the isolates, respectively. Additionally, plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance genes aac(6')-Ib and qnrS were detected in 61 (76.3%) and 2 (2.5%) of the 80 isolates, respectively. The CIP- and LEV-loaded poly ε-caprolactone (PCL) nanoparticles, FCIP and FLEV, respectively, showed a 1.5-6- and 6-12-fold decrease in the MIC, respectively, against the tested isolates. Interestingly, the time kill assay demonstrated that MICs of FCIP and FLEV completely killed A. baumannii isolates after 5-6 h of treatment. Furthermore, FCIP and FLEV were found to be efficient in overcoming the FQ resistance mediated by the efflux pumps in A. baumannii isolates as revealed by decreasing the MIC four-fold lower than that of free CIP and LEV, respectively. Moreover, FCIP and FLEV at 1/2 and 1/4 MIC significantly decreased biofilm formation by 47-93% and 69-91%, respectively. These findings suggest that polymeric nanoparticles can restore the effectiveness of FQs and represent a paradigm shift in the fight against A. baumannii isolates.

Inhibiting JAK1, not NF-κB, reverses the effect of pro-inflammatory cytokines on engineered human ligament function

The role of inflammation in chronic tendon/ligament injury is hotly debated. There is less debate about inflammation following acute injury. To better understand the effect of acute inflammation, in this study we developed a multi-cytokine model of inflammatory tendinitis. The combined treatment with TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, at dosages well below what are routinely used in vitro, decreased the mechanical properties and collagen content of engineered human ligaments. Treatment with this cytokine mixture resulted in an increase in phospho-NF-κB and MMP-1, did not affect procollagen production, and decreased STAT3 phosphorylation relative to controls. Using this more physiologically relevant model of acute inflammation, we inhibited NF-κB or JAK1 signaling in an attempt to reverse the negative effects of the cytokine mixture. Surprisingly, NF-κB inhibition led to an even greater decrease in mechanical function and collagen content. By contrast, inhibiting JAK1 led to an increase in mechanical properties, collagen content and thermal stability concomitant with a decrease in MMP-1. Our results suggest that inhibition of JAK1, not NF-κB, reverses the negative effects of pro-inflammatory cytokines on collagen content and mechanics in engineered human ligaments.

Box-Behnken Design for Assessing the Efficiency of Aflatoxin M1 Detoxification in Milk Using Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Milk contaminated with aflatoxin can lead to liver cancer. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a serious animal feed contaminant, is transformed into Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and secreted in milk. In this study, a biological method using probiotic bacteria, Lactobacillus rhamnosus (L. rhamnosus) in combination with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae), was used to assess their antiaflatoxigenic effect in animal milk. A Box-Behnken design was used to establish the optimal ratio of L. rhamnosus and S. cerevisiae, incubation time, and temperature for efficient AFM1 detoxification from milk. To achieve this, the primary, interaction, and quadratic effects of the chosen factors were investigated. To investigate the quadratic response surfaces, a second-order polynomial model was built using a three-factor, three-level Box-Behnken design. The quantity of AFM1 was detected by the ELISA technique. The results of these experiments obtained an optimum condition in AFM1 detoxification of the three tested factors in order to maximize their effect on AFM1 detoxification in milk. The model was tested in three highly contaminated milk samples to assure the efficacy of the model. AFM1 detoxification was up to 98.4% in contaminated milk samples. These promising results provide a safe, low-cost, and low-time-consuming solution to get rid of the problem of milk contamination with AFM1.