Barriers and Facilitators for Information Exchange during Over-The-Counter Consultations in Community Pharmacy: A Focus Group Study

Barriers and Facilitators to Medicines Use in Patients With Vision Impairment: A Theory-Informed Qualitative Study of Patients and Caregivers

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies have highlighted numerous challenges with medicines use for patients with vision impairment, but evidence is lacking on interventions to support safe and effective medicine use for this population. This study aimed to identify potential barriers/facilitators of medicines use from the viewpoint of patients/caregivers, to establish a theory-informed foundation for a future intervention.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with patients with vision impairment and their caregivers in Saudi Arabia. Participants were recruited from low-vision clinics and a non-profit organisation. The Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) informed the topic guide and served as the theoretical basis for examining participants' behaviours. Interviews explored the barriers/facilitators to obtaining and taking medicines (i.e. the target behaviours). Data were analysed using the framework method and content analysis. Key TDF domains were identified by assessing the relative frequency of themes, the existence of conflicting themes and the perceived theme impact on target behaviours.

RESULTS

Twelve patient/caregiver dyads and 18 individual patients were interviewed. Patients' ages ranged from 19 to 88 years, with 21 females and 9 males. Patients/caregivers demonstrated good knowledge of medicines used, and resourcefulness in finding methods to manage medication use (Domains: 'Knowledge' and 'Skills'). 'Environmental context and resources (ECR)' and 'Social influences' were the two most coded domains. Participants reported the usefulness of several resources including pill organisers and smartphones but described problems with pharmacy environments (Domain: 'ECR'). Caregivers played a major role in assisting patients with medicines. Participants had some positive encounters with pharmacists but reported difficulties in discussing medication issues with them. Many participants had a narrow view of the pharmacist's role (Domain: 'Social influences'). Maintaining a routine was a major facilitator under the 'Memory, attention and decision processes' and 'Behavioural regulation' domains. Six TDF domains were considered 'key' to participants' behaviours.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first to utilise a theoretical approach to understand the behaviour of patients with vision impairment in relation to medication use. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the role of caregivers and what influences their own behaviours. Findings will inform the future development of an intervention to support safe and effective medicine use for patients with vision impairment.

PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION

An author met with an administrator at the 'National Association of the Blind' (Kafeef) in Riyadh to enhance the research team's understanding of vision impairment, and the practicality and logistics for identifying and recruiting patients. A draft of the interview guides was piloted with two patients and their caregivers and they were asked for feedback on the questions with amendments made accordingly.

Privacy in Community Pharmacies in Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Privacy in healthcare is a fundamental right essential to maintain patient confidentiality and trust. Community pharmacies in Saudi Arabia (SA) play a critical role in the healthcare system by providing accessible services and serving as initial points of contact for medical advice. However, the open nature of these settings poses significant challenges in maintaining patient privacy.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study used electronic surveys distributed across various online platforms. The target sample included Saudi adults, with a sample size of 385 participants to achieve 80% statistical power at a 95% confidence interval. The survey comprised demographic questions and sections evaluating perceptions of privacy, the importance of privacy, and personal experiences regarding privacy in community pharmacies. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression models were used for the analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 511 responses were obtained. The mean age was 33.5 years, with an almost equal distribution of males (49.71%) and females (50.29%). Most participants held a bachelor's degree or higher (78.67%). Privacy perceptions varied, with only 9.0% strongly agreeing that there was a private space for consultations, while 64.0% felt that the design of community pharmacies did not adequately consider patient privacy, and 86.9% reported that conversations could be overheard. Privacy concerns were notable, with almost one-half of the participants (47.6%) having concerns about privacy and 56.6% doubting the confidentiality of their health information. Moreover, 17.6% reported being asked for unnecessary personal information when buying medication, and 56.2% admitted to avoiding discussing a health problem with the pharmacist due to privacy concerns. Experiences of privacy breaches were reported by 15.7% of respondents. Logistic regression analysis revealed that the availability of private space in the pharmacy and patients feeling that the pharmacy respects their privacy were associated with a lower likelihood of avoiding discussions with pharmacists due to privacy concerns (OR = 0.758, CI = 0.599-0.0957 and OR = 0.715, CI = 0.542-0.945 respectively) Conversely, greater privacy concerns and previous privacy breaches significantly increased the likelihood of avoiding discussions with pharmacists in the community pharmacy (OR = 1.657, CI = 1.317-2.102 and OR = 4.127, CI = 1.886-9.821 respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the significant concerns regarding privacy practices in community pharmacies in SA. Thus, there is a need for standards to improve privacy in community pharmacies, such as mandating the need for private consultation areas and enhanced staff training on handling privacy-related issues. Addressing the issue of privacy is crucial for maintaining patient trust, improving healthcare service quality, and ensuring effective patient-pharmacist interactions.

Barriers and facilitators for providing self-care advice in community pharmacies: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Community pharmacies are easily accessible for self-care advice. Guidelines for providing self-care advice were introduced in several countries, including the Netherlands in the 1990s. Previous studies have indicated room for improvement in self-care advice in daily pharmacy practice.

AIM

To identify barriers and facilitators for providing self-care advice.

METHOD

Semi-structured interviews were conducted face-to-face or online with pharmacists and pharmacy assistants using a topic guide based on the Theoretical Domains Framework. The interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were deductively analysed to identify barriers and facilitators for self-care counselling. COREQ guidelines were followed.

RESULTS

In total, 13 pharmacists and 12 pharmacy assistants were interviewed to reach data saturation. In general, most themes addressed by pharmacists and pharmacy assistants belonged to similar domains. The following domains were frequently mentioned: environmental context and resources (e.g. priority for prescription drugs, privacy, collaboration with general practitioners, access to patients' records), intentions (providing reliable advice), skills (communication, decision-making), knowledge (ready guideline knowledge), beliefs about consequences (patient safety), social influences (patient awareness of pharmacist role), reinforcement (lack of reimbursement for relatively time-consuming advice).

CONCLUSION

This study identifies barriers and facilitators for evidence-based self-care advice. Pharmacists should first support pharmacy assistants by helping them keep their knowledge and skills up to date and creating suitable pharmacy preconditions to facilitate improvements in self-care counselling. Second, collaboration with general practitioners regarding minor ailments should be improved.

Consumer perceptions of the OTC Coach: A clinical decision support system aimed at improving the safe use of over-the-counter medications

BACKGROUND

There are more than 300,000 over-the-counter (OTC) medications on the market making it challenging for consumers to select safe and effective products to treat their minor ailments.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to identify consumer perceptions about the use of a clinical decision support system, OTC Coach, to help them make informed decisions about OTC medications.

METHODS

We developed a prototype of the OTC Coach that focused on treating fever in adults. We recruited community members who were 18 years and older via our institutional research website. Participants completed a 30- to 45-minute video interview in which they initially discussed their perceptions and experiences of using OTC medications. We subsequently shared the OTC Coach prototype and sought feedback related to the content and format of the tool. We asked participants to rate their likelihood of using the tool to treat a new symptom (10-point Likert scale, 1 = not at all to 10 = extremely likely) and conducted a qualitative and quantitative analysis of these findings.

RESULTS

Among 20 participants, 11 (55%) were female, 10 (50%) were white, and the mean age was 47.9 years (range 18-81 years). Participants reported that the tool was easy to understand. The questions reported as being extremely important by most participants were allergies (n = 17, 85%), increased risk of bleeding (n = 15, 75%), temperature (n = 12, 60%), and duration of symptoms (n = 12, 60%). Three-fourths of participants (n = 15) selected a score of 7 or higher when asked about their likelihood of using this tool for a new symptom. Concerns that were raised included ensuring that the tool accounted for their personal health history, data storage, and accessibility.

CONCLUSION

Consumers were interested in using an electronic tool to determine if their symptoms can be self-treated and, if so, which medications are appropriate.

A pseudo-customer cross-sectional study to evaluate the community pharmacist's management of migraine in pregnant women

Background

To the best of our knowledge few published studies have been conducted to evaluate customer's care services in community pharmacies in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) using the pseudo-customer model. This further indicates that there is a paucity of information available about the current care services provided by the community pharmacists particularly for pregnant women with migraine.

Objective

The main objective was to evaluate, the effectiveness of the pseudo-customer method on the care services (counseling, advice, and management) provided by the community pharmacists for migraine during pregnancy.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study conducted in community pharmacies with a cluster sampling of pharmacists. A sample of 200 community pharmacists was recruited from three emirates in the United Arab Emirates. Pregnant woman-related migraine management was assessed using the pseudo-customer model. The used script is not of a real patient but a fake/scripted used to describe the study.

Results

No association was found between the gender and nationality of community pharmacists and the ability to be proactive (P =0.5, 0.568) and between the utilization of source of information and gender (P =0.31). The ability to prescribe by community pharmacists without probing or only after a probe was independent of job title (P =0.310); gender (P =0.44) and nationality (P =0.128). The community pharmacists who have offered written information have had significantly higher odds to dispense medication compared to those who have not (OR =45.547, 95% CI: 2.653 - 782.088, P =0.008). Furthermore, the pharmacists who have been reported to ask for precipitating factors of migraine had significantly higher odds to dispense medication compared to those who have not (OR =11.955, 95% CI: 1.083-131.948, P =0.043). The main outcome was the responses of the community pharmacists to the pseudo-customer visit (pregnant woman with migraine).

Conclusions

The community pharmacist's care services (counseling, advice, and management) offered to the pseudo-customer visits was effective for dealing with migraine during pregnancy.

Experiences and Expectations of Ethnic Minorities and Majorities towards Community Pharmacy Medicines-Related Services in Estonia

The unique professional competence of pharmacists can support the safe and effective use of medicines by patients. Additionally, it is important to acknowledge and incorporate the needs of patients with various cultural and social backgrounds. The objective of this study was to assess and compare the experiences and expectations of Russian- and Estonian-speaking pharmacy customers about medicines-related services in Estonian community pharmacies. Cross-sectional study among pharmacy customers was conducted in Estonia 2018−2020. For data analysis, an Independent t-Test was used to compare experiences and expectations of respondents towards medicines-related services. The study involved 552 pharmacy customers: 58.5% (n = 323) Estonians and 41.5% (n = 229) Russians. The majority of the total sample (78.3%) considered the pharmacist competent to help. Medicines-related concerns were more common among Russians (p = 0.037), however, they sought less contact to consult a pharmacist than Estonians (p < 0.001). Furthermore, expectations about different medicines-related services in the future were higher among Estonians than among Russians (p < 0.001). Community pharmacists in Estonia should focus more on person-centered care to better meet the expectations and needs of different ethnic groups about medicines-related services. It is also important to reduce the language barrier and to increase the recognition of cultural traditions by health professionals.

The Quality of Counseling for Headache OTC Medications in German Community Pharmacies Using a Simulated Patient Approach: Are There Differences between Self-Purchase and Purchase for a Third Party?

Background

In Germany-as worldwide-headache is one of the most frequent causes of self-medication. The dispensing of over-the-counter (OTC) medications may only be carried out by community pharmacies (CPs). In doing so, CPs have to ensure "adequate" counseling, for both self-purchase and purchase for a third party, which also occurs in everyday pharmacy practice. The aim of this study was to evaluate the quality of counseling for headache OTC medications in German CPs and, as the first study worldwide, to analyze whether and to what extent there are differences in counseling between self-purchase and purchase for a third party.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was carried out using the covert simulated patient methodology (SPM) in all 42 CPs in the German big city Potsdam. With the help of 8 trained simulated patients (SPs), each CP was visited four times by a different SP. The SPs simulated in each CP two scenarios two times with the demand for an OTC medication against headache, which differed only in whether the demand was for themselves or for their boyfriend/girlfriend.

Results

All 168 planned pharmacy visits (84 visits per scenario) were successfully carried out. Overall, the median counseling score was 3.0 out of 9 points (interquartile range [IQR 2.0]). There were no significant differences between the two scenarios (Wilcoxon signed-rank test; p=0.495, r = 0.053). In a multivariate binary logistic regression analysis, the counseling level and the different scenarios were not significantly associated (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.635, 95% CI = 0.673-3.972, p=0.278).

Conclusions

Due to the partly considerable deficits in counseling of German CPs, policy-makers and the regional chambers of pharmacists are called upon to take appropriate measures to improve the quality of counseling. It is positive that no differences in counseling between self-purchase and purchase for a third party were found, but further verifying studies with a modified methodology are recommended.

Systematic review on the effects of the physical and social aspects of community pharmacy spaces on service users and staff

Aim:

This systematic review aimed to provide new insights into how pharmacy spaces, or the architecture of pharmacies, are experienced by pharmacy service users and staff. The review sought to identify environmental factors which may influence service users’ and staff participation in community-based pharmacy health services.

Method:

Ten databases were searched for English language publications, using a combination of search terms relating to pharmacy service users and staff; pharmacy spaces; and health and social care outcomes. Data from the final selected studies were extracted, thematically analysed using a narrative approach and the quality of each study assessed using the Integrated quality Criteria for the Review of Multiple Study designs (ICROMS).

Results:

80 articles reporting 80 studies published between 1994 and 2020 were identified; they were from 28 countries, involving around 3234 community pharmacies, 13,615 pharmacy service users, 5056 pharmacists and 78 pharmacy health staff. Most studies (94%) met the ICROMS minimum score, and half did not meet the mandatory quality criteria. Four themes likely to influence service users’ and staff experiences of pharmacy health services were identified: (1) privacy; (2) experience of the physical environment; (3) professional image; and (4) risk of error.

Conclusion:

To optimise the delivery and experience of pharmacy health services, these spaces should be made more engaging. Future applied research could focus on optimising inclusive pharmacy design features.

Are evidence-based criteria addressed during counseling on over-the-counter products? An observational study in community pharmacies

OBJECTIVE

We examined whether evidence-based criteria were addressed during counseling on over-the-counter products (OTCs) in community pharmacies.

METHODS

Consultations were observed in 10 community pharmacies. We analyzed communications about OTCs to determine if any information on three evidence-based criteria (outcome variables: scientific evidence such as clinical study results, pharmaceutical staff's experience, and customer's experience) was mentioned. Two groups of communications were compared with Pearson's chi-square and Fisher's exact test, as appropriate: The communications about OTCs recommended by the pharmaceutical staff vs. the communications about OTCs requested by customers.

RESULTS

In 379 observed consultations, 300 OTCs were recommended by staff and 390 OTCs were requested by customers. The least included criterion was scientific evidence (in OTCs recommended by pharmaceutical staff - 1% vs. requested by customers - 0%), followed by pharmaceutical staff's experience (5% vs. 1%). The customer's experience was addressed more frequently (14% vs. 41%). Statistically significant differences between the two groups were found for all criteria (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Evidence-based criteria were rarely addressed during counseling on OTCs.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Pharmaceutical staff should be encouraged to include the three evidence-based criteria more frequently. Additionally, customers should be encouraged to request such information from the staff in community pharmacies.

Exploring the views of community pharmacists on patient feedback on their consultations

OBJECTIVES

To explore community pharmacists' (CPs) views on patient feedback on their consultations.

METHODS

The study was conducted at community pharmacies in the East of England. Pharmacists employed at a large multiple pharmacy were invited to a telephone/face-to-face interview. Interviews were audio-recorded and thematically analysed.

KEY FINDINGS

Six pharmacists participated and interviews yielded four main themes. Pharmacists shared views on benefits of collecting feedback (e.g. improving their consultations), potential barriers (e.g. bias) and associated resolutions (e.g. using anonymous questionnaires). Peer feedback was also suggested.

CONCLUSIONS

Patient feedback is welcomed by CPs and perceived useful for improving their consultations.

Improving outpatient medication counselling in hospital pharmacy settings: a behavioral analysis using the theoretical domains framework and behavior change wheel

Background:

Despite the importance of medication counselling for patients, it is common knowledge that it is often sub-optimally carried out by pharmacy staff. While some interventions have been designed to help improve counselling, no study till date has used the Capability Opportunity and Motivation behavior model (COM-B) or Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) as a basis for identifying evidence-based intervention strategies to improve medication counselling.

Objective:

To understand barriers/facilitators to optimal medication counselling by conducting a behavioral analysis using the COM-B model and TDF, and use the Behavior Change Wheel (BCW) as a basis for identifying evidence-based intervention strategies and policy categories that could be used to improve outpatient medication counselling by pharmacy staff in hospital settings located within Northwest Nigeria.

Methods:

Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data from 25 purposively sampled pharmacy staff working at eight major public hospitals, from January till March 2020. Data from the interviews were then transcribed and deductively coded using the COM-B model and TDF. These findings were then used to identify areas requiring change, as well as the intervention type and policy functions required to support these changes.

Results:

Findings from the behavioral analysis revealed shortfalls in pharmacy staff capability, opportunity and motivation with respect to outpatient medication counselling. To improve their counselling behaviors, change was identified as necessary in eight TDF domains namely ‘knowledge’, ‘interpersonal skills’, ‘memory’ ‘environmental context’, ‘social influences’, ‘intentions’, ‘reinforcement’ and ‘beliefs about capabilities’. Seven intervention functions including ‘education’, ‘training’, ‘modelling’, ‘enablement’ and ‘environmental restructuring’, in addition to three policy categories (‘guidelines’, ‘regulations’ and ‘environmental/social planning’) were also identified as relevant to future intervention design.

Conclusions:

Various factors were identified as affecting medication counselling by the pharmacy staff, with several of them requiring changes if counselling was to be improved upon. Multi-component interventions combining several of these intervention functions are recommended for hospital authorities and other relevant stakeholders to improve outpatient medication counselling.

What influences the information exchange during self-medication consultations in community pharmacies? A non-participant observation study

BACKGROUND

Although pharmaceutical staff consider guideline-compliant information exchange during self-medication consultations as crucial, they have not fully integrated it into practice. It is unclear what prevents pharmaceutical staff from implementing their positive intentions into their actual everyday practice. To improve the information exchange during the current consultation practice, a deeper understanding of its implementation is needed.

OBJECTIVES

The aim was to evaluate the factors influencing information exchange during self-medication consultations in German community pharmacies.

METHODS

We performed a non-participant observation of real-life consultations with post-consultation interviews of pharmaceutical staff in 10 pharmacies. The information exchanged during self-medication consultations was evaluated via 7 guideline-recommended information parameters in 2 stages of information exchange: (a) 'information gathering' and (b) 'provision of information'. Directly after each observed consultation, pharmaceutical staff's opinion about the consultation, the customer's interest and their own performance was questioned. Factors associated with the observed extent of information exchange were analysed by Poisson regression analysis.

RESULTS

In the 379 self-medication consultations with 46 pharmaceutical staff members, 454 different customer enquiries were addressed, and 483 medications were dispensed. In median, 2 predefined information parameters (First-/Third quartile: 1/4) were fulfilled during an enquiry and 2 parameters (First-/Third quartile: 1/3) were fulfilled for a dispensed medication. Pharmaceutical staff were satisfied with 85% of their consultations and perceived 76% of them as easy to handle. In both information stages, information exchange increased when 'customers were perceived to be interested in counselling' (p < 0.001) and decreased when customers had a 'specific medication request' (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Information exchange in pharmacies needs to be better integrated into daily practice. Strategies to encourage information exchange should also include pharmaceutical staffs' perception of their own counselling technique. Ongoing patient-centred trainings should facilitate strategies to engage uninterested customers or costumers with specific medication requests in consultations.

Let's talk virtual! Online focus group facilitation for the modern researcher

BACKGROUND

Focus group discussions typically involve face-to-face facilitation. There is growing interest in utilising digital technologies to facilitate aspects of focus group research. To date, no study in the pharmacy profession has comprehensively described and evaluated a fully virtual process to focus group research, from recruitment to reimbursement.

OBJECTIVE(S)

This study aims to describe an entirely online approach to: recruiting for and facilitating virtual focus group discussions, and reimbursement of participants within the pharmacy profession. Specifically, our objectives were to identify 1) the dropout rate, 2) the geographic diversity of focus group participants, and 3) the occurrence of technological issues.

METHOD

Traditional face-to-face focus group recruitment and facilitation methods were adapted, pre-tested, and conducted using online platforms for advertising, participant expressions of interest, participant consent, focus group facilitation, and participant reimbursement. Populations of interest included community pharmacists, specialty practice pharmacists, hospital pharmacists, and pharmacy assistants and technicians across Australia.

RESULTS

Of the 153 potential participants who either completed an expression of interest to participate (135/153) or agreed to participate after direct contact (18/153), 59 confirmed that they would attend the focus group discussion (39%); 49 of the 59 (dropout rate: 17%) participated in one of eight focus groups. Collectively, there was representation from all States and Territories in Australia, as well as representation in each of the populations of interest. Three of 49 participants (6%) experienced minor technological issues during the process; no participant encountered major technological issues that precluded successful participation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates that an entirely online approach to focus group methodology is possible, has the potential to recruit demographically and geographically-diverse participants with low dropout rates, and can be successfully conducted with minimal technological issues. Despite the recent COVID-19 pandemic making physical focus group facilitation untenable, this fully-online approach enables research to be completed uninterrupted.

Point-of-care C-reactive protein testing to support the management of respiratory tract infections in community pharmacy: A feasibility study

BACKGROUND

Point-of-care (POC) C-reactive protein (CRP) testing is employed in European primary care settings to differentiate viral from bacterial respiratory tract infections (RTIs) the latter, requiring referral for antibiotics. This service has yet to be trialled in Australian community pharmacy to support over-the-counter RTI management.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the feasibility, based on clinical and operational outcomes, of POC CRP testing to support Western Australian community pharmacists' management of RTIs.

METHODS

Patients with RTI signs and symptoms were recruited from June-August 2019 at 5 community pharmacies. Trained pharmacists made recommendations based on participants' POC CRP levels and routine clinical assessment. Participants completed questionnaires and telephone follow-ups on Days 3 (by pharmacists) and 5 (by researchers) post-testing. Service provision and uptake were assessed in 3 separate weekly tally sheets.

RESULTS

Clinical outcomes: CRP levels among the 131 participants recruited were: < 5 mg/L (bacterial infection unlikely; n = 60; 45.8%); 5-19 mg/L (bacterial infection possible if suggestive routine assessment; n = 52; 39.7%) and 20-100 mg/L (bacterial infection likely if suggestive routine assessment; n = 19; 14.5%). Pharmacists' management included over-the-counter medicines (131, 100%), self-care advice (125, 95.4%) and immediate general practitioner (GP) referral (15, 11.5%). Sixty-five percent (76/117) of participants had recovered by Day 5. Operational outcomes: The services was provided in 21.2% of eligible RTI presentations, representing a service uptake rate of 28.1%. Post-CRP testing, 50.9% (58/114) of participants had changed perceptions regarding their need for antibiotics, with 14.3% (16/112) subsequently intending to seek a GP prescription. Consumer satisfaction was high (100%) and most participants (93.4%, 123/131) would utilise the service again.

CONCLUSIONS

POC CRP testing was a feasible and well-accepted strategy to facilitate community pharmacy as a triage point for RTI. Consumer confidence in the pharmacists' advice, supported by CRP testing, potentially reduced unnecessary GP visits and antibiotic prescribing.

Public's perspectives on guideline-recommended self-medication consultations in German community pharmacies

The aim of this study was to assess the public's opinions and expectations of self-medication consultations in German community pharmacies with special emphasis on the acceptance of guideline-recommended consultation. In a cross-sectional study in the city centre of Leipzig, Germany, we conducted a questionnaire-based survey administered via an interview with passers-by from June to September 2018. The structured questionnaire contained questions assessing (I) previous experience with self-medication consultations, (II) possible reasons for declining self-medication consultations, (III) the attitude towards information gathering and (IV) expectations of self-medication consultations. (I) 92% of the 963 respondents stated they were generally satisfied with self-medication consultations in community pharmacies. Around one-fifth of all respondents claimed that they would like to be asked more health-related questions (22%) and receive more information on non-prescription drugs (20%). (II) Privacy issues (39%) and reluctance to talk about some medical conditions (43%) were the most frequent reasons for declining self-medication consultation. (III) Respondents understood the need for answering guideline-recommended questions (85-96%) and did not mind being asked these questions (70-96%). (IV) Most of the respondents expected to be counselled even if they did not ask for it directly (69%). Pharmacies were further expected to recommend the best drug, even if it was not what the customer initially intended to buy (87%). However, more than half of the respondents would consider counselling as unimportant if they knew exactly which medication they wanted to buy (56%) or if they had used the non-prescription drug before (70%). The majority also expected to receive guideline-recommended drug information (each item at least 52%). Thus, our study shows that respondents were mostly in line with the required standards of self-medication counselling guidelines. Customers expect high-quality counselling on self-medication. These findings support pharmaceutical staff's understanding of customers' barriers and expectations during self-medication consultations.

Factors impeding the supply of over-the-counter medications according to evidence-based practice: A mixed-methods study

OBJECTIVE

Despite the positive attitudes pharmacists have toward evidence-based practices (EBPs), its application in community pharmacies in Saudi Arabia is lacking. Therefore, this study aimed to explore and assess EBPs by community pharmacists in Saudi Arabia when they dispense over-the-counter (OTC) medications for three minor ailments: diarrhea, cough, and the common cold.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

We used a mixed-methods approach consisting of two study parts. The first was a quantitative investigation that used mystery shoppers. Four researchers, posing as mystery shoppers, visited 214 randomly selected pharmacies in the Riyadh region of Saudi Arabia. They used 14 questions from a standardized checklist to examine EBPs by community pharmacists. The qualitative part of the study entailed three focus-group discussions with 13 pharmacists from different community practice settings and explored factors that affected the application of EBPs when supplying OTC medications from the pharmacists' point of view.

RESULTS

The analysis indicated that 40% of pharmacists dispensed OTC medications according to EBPs. Logistic regression analysis showed that one question, "Describe your symptoms", predicted the correct supply of OTC medications (p = 0.021). The qualitative section of the study identified nine factors that affected EBP. Some of these factors facilitated EBP, such as established patient-pharmacist relationships, some acted as barriers such as conflicts between available evidence, while other factors could either facilitate or hinder EBPs, such as the health literacy of the patient.

CONCLUSION

Given that dispensing OTC medication is a core function of pharmacists, this study uncovered low adherence to EBPs by community pharmacists in Saudi Arabia when dispensing OTC medication for three minor ailments: diarrhea, cough, and the common cold. Furthermore, this study identified a number of explanatory factors for this low adherence. Targeting these factors could help change the behavior of pharmacists and decrease undesirable outcomes.

What is the attitude towards and the current practice of information exchange during self-medication counselling in German community pharmacies? An assessment through self-report and non-participant observation

Background

Guidelines encourage relevant information exchange between pharmaceutical staff and patients during self-medication consultation. Thereby, assessing the patient’s situation and providing information is crucial for patient safety. So far, limited studies have investigated this information exchange, particularly in Germany. We aimed to assess the attitude towards and the current practice of guideline-recommended information exchange in German community pharmacies.

Methods

In total, twelve guideline-recommended parameters were predefined for gathering patient-related information and for the provision of information. These information exchange parameters were evaluated in two parts: Firstly, in a self-report of pharmaceutical staff via an online questionnaire to assess the reported importance, difficulty and frequency of the parameters as well as barriers to their implementation; secondly, in a non-participant observation in five pharmacies to evaluate the actual consultation practice.

Results

In the self-report, all parameters were rated by more than 76% of 1068 participants as important. ‘Concurrent medication’ was determined to be the most difficult parameter to address (54%). All parameters of information gathering were rated to be addressed during routine counselling by at least 70% of the respondents. Parameters of information provision were all rated to be addressed by at least 45%. ‘Lack of patient’s interest’ was identified as the most frequent barrier to appropriate counselling (84%). During the observation, the information gathering parameters were each addressed between 8 to 63% in the consultations, parameters of information provision between 3 to 34%.

Conclusion

Despite broad acceptance, the guideline parameters of information exchange were comparatively little addressed during the actual routine care. This might be due to a perceived ‘lack of patient’s interest’ in counselling. Our results suggest to scrutinize whether patients are in fact not interested in counselling and to further explore how the positive intention of pharmaceutical staff towards information exchange can be further translated into everyday practice.

The Quality of Counselling for Oral Emergency Contraceptive Pills-A Simulated Patient Study in German Community Pharmacies

Background: In Germany, there are two different active substances, levonorgestrel (LNG) and ulipristal acetate (UPA), available as emergency contraception (the “morning after pill”) with UPA still effective even 72 to 120 h after unprotected sexual intercourse, unlike LNG. Emergency contraceptive pills have been available without a medical prescription since March 2015 but are still only dispensed by community pharmacies. The aim of this study was to determine the counselling and dispensing behaviour of pharmacy staff and the factors that may influence this behaviour in a scenario that intends that only the emergency contraceptive pill containing the active substance UPA is dispensed (appropriate outcome). Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out in the form of a covert simulated patient study in a random sample of community pharmacies stratified by location in the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and reported in accordance with the STROBE statement. Each pharmacy was visited once at random by one of four trained test buyers. They simulated a product-based request for an emergency contraceptive pill, stating contraceptive failure 3.5 days prior as the reason. The test scenario and the evaluation forms are based on the recommended actions, including the checklist from the Federal Chamber of Pharmacies. Results: All 199 planned pharmacy visits were carried out. The appropriate outcome (dispensing of UPA) was achieved in 78.9% of the test purchases (157/199). A significant correlation was identified between the use of the counselling room and the use of a checklist (p < 0.001). The use of a checklist led to a significantly higher questioning score (p < 0.001). In a multivariate binary logistic regression analysis, a higher questioning score (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.41; 95% CI = 1.22–1.63; p < 0.001) and a time between 12:01 and 4:00 p.m. (AOR = 2.54; 95% CI = 1.13–5.73; p = 0.024) compared to 8:00 to 12:00 a.m. were significantly associated with achieving the appropriate outcome. Conclusions: In a little over one-fifth of all test purchases, the required dispensing of UPA did not occur. The use of a counselling room and a checklist, the use of a checklist and the questioning score as well as the questioning score and achieving the appropriate outcome are all significantly correlated. A target regulation for the use of a counselling room, an explicit guideline recommendation about the use of a checklist, an obligation for keeping UPA in stock and appropriate mandatory continuing education programmes should be considered.

Do north-eastern German pharmacies recommend a necessary medical consultation for acute diarrhoea? Magnitude and determinants using a simulated patient approach

Background: In Germany, non-pharmacists (pharmacy technicians and pharmaceutical technical assistants) are permitted to advise on and sell medications in addition to pharmacists. The aim of this study was to determine if pharmacists and non-pharmacists referred patients to a medical consultation for a scenario in which consulting a doctor was mandatory ('appropriate outcome') and what the quality of questioning and - if a medication was dispensed - the quality of information provided were in this context. The study also aimed to determine which factors predicted a necessary referral to a doctor. Methods: A cross-sectional, covert simulated patient study was conducted in a random sample of community pharmacies stratified by location in the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Each pharmacy was visited once by one of four trained investigators. They simulated a symptom-based request involving a grandmother with acute diarrhoea. A multivariate binary logistic regression analysis using potential variables from bivariate analysis was carried out to determine the predictors for a referral to a doctor. Results: All 199 planned visits were conducted. A necessary referral to a doctor was recommended in 59.8% (n=119) of all visits. The most commonly asked question was 'for whom is the medication?' (75.4%, n=150), while 'clarification by a doctor' was asked the least (17.6%, n=35). In 87.9% (n=175) of all visits a medication was dispensed. Multivariate analysis revealed that, unlike pharmacists, non-pharmacists have a 2.446 times higher likelihood of recommending a referral to a doctor (p = 0.044; 95% CI = 1.025-5.835). Conclusions: In almost half of the visits a necessary referral to a doctor was not recommended. Furthermore, the quality of questioning and the quality of information were below expectations. Moreover, involvement of non‑pharmacists was surprisingly identified as a relevant factor influencing the appropriate outcome.

Do north-eastern German pharmacies recommend a necessary medical consultation for acute diarrhoea? Magnitude and determinants using a simulated patient approach

Background: To determine if pharmacy staff in Germany referred patients to a medical consultation for a scenario in which consulting a doctor was mandatory ('appropriate outcome') and what the quality of questioning and - if a medication was dispensed - the quality of information provided were in this context. Moreover, to determine which factors predicted a necessary referral to a doctor. Methods: A cross-sectional covert simulated patient study was conducted in a random sample of community pharmacies stratified by location in the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Each pharmacy was visited once by one of four trained investigators. They simulated a symptom-based request involving a grandmother with acute diarrhoea. A multivariate binary logistic regression analysis using potential variables from bivariate analysis was carried out to determine the predictors for a referral to a doctor. Results: All 199 planned visits were conducted. A necessary referral to a doctor was recommended in 59.8% (n=119) of all test purchases. Multivariate analysis revealed that a non-pharmacist as opposed to a pharmacist and two or more questions as opposed to no questions were significantly associated with a referral to a doctor. Conclusions: Regarding the necessary referral to a doctor, an enormous potential for improvement was revealed for community pharmacies in the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The results should make both the Mecklenburg-Vorpommern pharmacy association and legislators aware of the need to significantly escalate their quality management efforts.

Patient Experiences at Enhanced-Service Pharmacies in Iowa

Objectives

As payment systems are evolving, the role of community pharmacists has expanded from simply dispensing prescriptions to actively providing care to patients. Little is known about patients' experiences with enhanced pharmacy services under the pay-forperformance model. In Iowa, Wellmark implemented its Value-Based Pharmacy Program (VBPP) where pharmacists receive capitation for performance on a set of quality measurements. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the quality of services and pharmacies from patients' perspective in VBPP. A structured interview guide developed from the service quality model was used for this study.

Methods

We conducted telephone interviews with patients from 6 community pharmacies participating in VBPP between December 2017 and January 2018. Patients who were aged between 21 and 90 years, had Wellmark prescription drug coverage, were currently on at least three medications with one or more of the medications for a chronic condition and had received enhanced pharmacy services were invited for the study. The semi-structured interview transcripts were coded and analyzed using an inductive approach of thematic analysis.

Results

Interviews were completed by 25 patients. Most of them were female and the average age was 59. More than half of the patients were taking at least five medications for chronic conditions. A majority of the patients received medication synchronization and immunization. A total of 13 themes across the service quality dimensions were identified. Patients thought their pharmacists were reliable, responsive, knowledgeable and trustworthy when they provided services. Pharmacy services were accessible and perceived as high quality. Privacy was not a big concern for most patients. Patients had a somewhat limited view regarding how pharmacists helped them maintain health.

Conclusion

Patients' perceptions of enhanced pharmacy services and pharmacies were generally positive while their understanding of pharmacists' clinical role was limited.

A Theory Based Intervention to Enhance Information Exchange during Over-The-Counter Consultations in Community Pharmacy: A Feasibility Study

Background: Management of minor ailments through self-care and self-medication brings both benefits and risks that can be mitigated if consumers and pharmacy personnel engage in information exchange during over-the-counter (OTC) consultations. Objective: Explore the feasibility of interventions using situational cues to promote information exchange between pharmacy personnel and consumers, during OTC consultations. Methods: Intervention tools were developed prior to conducting the study, in two community pharmacies in Perth, Western Australia. The situational cues included two posters and individual position badges. Data were collected from audio-recording OTC consultations, consumer questionnaires and interviews, and pharmacy personnel interviews. Results: Space required for posters and for researchers conducting interviews was challenging in the retail environment. Pharmacy personnel perceived that the badges positively impacted -consumers’ ability to identify the position of personnel they engaged with. Data collection methods were deemed practical and acceptable. Conclusions: The proposed interventions and evaluation methods were feasible. The use of posters and badges as situational cues to address the barriers to information exchange during OTC consultations was found to be practical, in a community pharmacy setting. There is potential to use situational cues to address other barriers identified to information exchange, to add to the effectiveness of the intervention. With growing emphasis on self-care and self-medication, effective interventions are necessary to promote information exchange to enhance appropriate management in community pharmacies.

Perceptions of UK Community Pharmacists on Current Consultation Skills and Motivational Interviewing as a Consultation Approach: A Qualitative Study

OBJECTIVES

Community pharmacists' roles in the UK are evolving; pharmacists currently deliver a wider range of clinical services with more patient-focused care. The objectives of this study were (i) to investigate UK community pharmacists' views on their current communication skills in pharmacist-patient facing consultations, and (ii) to explore the perceptions of UK community pharmacists towards the application of motivational interviewing (MI) in a pharmacy consultation. In-depth qualitative face-to-face, semi-structured interviews with ten practicing community pharmacists were carried out, ranging from 30-60 minutes in length. The interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and thematic analysis was employed. Four themes emerged from the data: (1) the fight for time; (2) wrestling with consultation styles; (3) a personal communication evolution; and (4) unfamiliar but engaging motivational interviewing. These themes demonstrated the juxtaposition between the desire for patient-centred care and the pressures of managing broader dispensing work. Participants were critical of academic and continuous professional learning (CPD) training in communication skills and there was a strong recognition of the potential role of MI in promoting patient autonomy and outcomes. Participants recognized a few elements of MI techniques in their current consultations, but welcomed further training on behavioral change for effective consultations, expressing a desire for practical MI-specific training. Face-to-face CPD of consultation skills is needed to avoid the feeling of isolation among UK practicing pharmacists and rigidity in consultation delivery. Support for community pharmacists from other pharmacy staff could relieve current pressures and allow pharmacists time to develop and acquire effective skills for patient facing roles. Behavioural change consultation skills training for pharmacists could be an effective strategy to address these current challenges.

Assessment of patient counselling on the common cold treatment at Slovak community pharmacies using mystery shopping

BACKGROUND

Up to now, there have been no data on patient counselling in the Slovak community pharmacies. The literature provides a wide range of activities for which mystery shopping methodology be used, including assessment of patient counselling.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To assess patient counselling on the common cold treatment with OTC medicine containing zinc provided by Slovak community pharmacists. To analyse this counselling considering the set scenarios, counsellors and their age.

METHODS

54 pharmacy students visited 270 different community pharmacies throughout Slovakia in 2 weeks in October 2016 to conduct mystery shopping with set scenarios. For assessment of patient counselling, we defined Counselling Performance. It was conceptualised as weighted mean percentage counselling successes rate of its three categories (Identification, Information and Communication) and their weights. Individual perception of counselling evaluated separately. Student t-test and Person's chi-squared test (p < 0.05) and Cohen delta were used for comparing outcomes and effect size of counselling. A simple linear regression was used to find relationships.

RESULTS

The total Counselling Performance was 39.0 ± 22.4%, Identification 30.6 ± 28.7%, Information 39.8 ± 25.1% and Communication 74.3 ± 11.5%. 26.3% pharmacies achieved the average Counselling Performance (41-60%). Subjective Perception had a success rate of 73.4 ± 21.2%, but it could be predicted by the Counselling Performance and the success rate of the three categories only in 1/5 pharmacies. Spontaneous counselling was provided more by pharmacy technicians (p = 0.0009). The duration of counselling was similar when comparing both scenarios, counsellors and their age. The product-requested scenario achieved a higher success rate in the Information category (p = 0.0304; d = 0.27). Pharmacists achieved a higher Counselling Performance (p < 0.0001; d = 0.48) and success rate in categories Identification (p = 0.0001, d = 0.46), Information (p = 0.0004, d = 0.37), and Perception (p = 0.0007; d = 0.54). The estimated age of counsellors did not have any impact on the counselling.

CONCLUSION

Patient counselling on the common cold showed a suboptimal level, particularly considering its content. In the study, we found a significant relationship between the success of counselling and counsellors.

Development of a Theory-Based Intervention to Enhance Information Exchange during Over-The-Counter Consultations in Community Pharmacy

(1) Background: Community pharmacy personnel help mitigate risks of self-care by consumers who seek over-the-counter (OTC) medicines or treatment of symptoms and/or conditions. Exchange of information facilitates the OTC consultation, but pharmacy personnel often report difficulties in engaging consumers in a dialogue. The aim of this study was to describe the development of a behaviour change intervention to enhance information exchange between pharmacy personnel and consumers during OTC consultations in community pharmacies. (2) Methods: The Behaviour Change Wheel methodological framework was used to link factors that influence consumer engagement with information exchange during OTC consultations with intervention functions to change behaviour. Options generated were rationalized and the final intervention strategy was derived. (3) Results: Education, persuasion, environmental restructuring, and modelling were determined to be potential intervention functions. The intervention incorporated placing situational cues in the form of posters in the community pharmacy modelling information exchange behaviour, persuading through highlighting the benefits of exchanging information and educating about its importance. (4) Conclusions: A systematic, theoretically underpinned approach was applied to develop candidate interventions to promote information exchange in OTC consultations. The feasibility and efficacy of the intervention strategy has since been tested and will be reported elsewhere.