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Yadav V, Singh S, Singh S, Powar S. Life cycle assessment of chemically treated and copper coated sustainable biocomposites. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 948:174474. [PMID: 38964407 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Revised: 06/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
The current demand for composites reinforced with renewable fibers is greater than it has ever been. In comparison to glass fibers, natural fibers yield the advantages of lesser density and cost. Although comparable specific properties exist between glass and natural fibers, the latter shows lower strength. However, with the copper coating and chemical treatment of natural fibers, the strength of the composites can be increased nowadays. The current research investigation focuses on the life cycle assessment of the raw, chemically treated, and copper coated fiber reinforced bagasse and banana composites to compare the emissions on the environment of these samples to prove their applicability. The study includes all the processes, from the extraction of fibers to the formation of composites, i.e., from cradle to gate, and detailed inventory. The ReCiPe H midpoint method has been utilized in SimaPro software to quantify the emissions. The results indicate that the maximum global warming emission is due to the energy consumption used during the manufacturing of these composites. Electricity contribution for chemically treated and copper coated composites in global warming contribution is slightly greater than that of raw composites i.e., 73.275 % in C- BG/P, 73.06 % in Cu- BG/P, 73.65 % in C- BN/P and 74.28 % in Cu- BN/P which is comparatively higher than 63.8 % in R- BG/P and 64.97 % in R- BN/P. The next major contributions come from polylactic acid for all the three samples of bagasse fiber reinforced PLA composite and banana fiber reinforced PLA composite. The raw samples also show improved fiber strength compared to chemical and copper coated samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikas Yadav
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh 160012, India
| | - Shweta Singh
- Bureau of Economic Geology, Jackson School of Geosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, TX 78758, USA
| | - Sarbjit Singh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh 160012, India
| | - Satvasheel Powar
- School of Technology and Business Studies, Energy Technology, Högskolan Dalarna, Falun 79188, Sweden; School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh 175005, India.
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2
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Hejna A, Barczewski M, Kosmela P, Mysiukiewicz O, Sulima P, Przyborowski JA, Kowalkowska-Zedler D. Mater-Bi/Brewers' Spent Grain Biocomposites-Novel Approach to Plant-Based Waste Filler Treatment by Highly Efficient Thermomechanical and Chemical Methods. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 15:ma15207099. [PMID: 36295167 PMCID: PMC9605683 DOI: 10.3390/ma15207099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Thermoplastic starch (TPS) is a homogenous material prepared from native starch and water or other plasticizers subjected to mixing at a temperature exceeding starch gelatinization temperature. It shows major drawbacks like high moisture sensitivity, poor mechanical properties, and thermal stability. To overcome these drawbacks without significant cost increase, TPS could be blended with bio-based or biodegradable polymers and filled with plant-based fillers, beneficially waste-based, like brewers' spent grain (BSG), the main brewing by-product. Filler modifications are often required to enhance the compatibility of such composites. Herein, we investigated the impact of BSG thermomechanical and chemical treatments on the structure, physical, thermal, and rheological performance of Mater-Bi-based composites. Thermomechanical modifications enhanced matrix thermal stability under oxidative conditions delaying degradation onset by 33 °C. Moreover, BSG enhanced the crystallization of the polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) fraction of Mater-Bi, potentially improving mechanical properties and shortening processing time. BSG chemical treatment with isophorone diisocyanate improved the processing properties of the composites, expressed by a 33% rise in melt flow index. Depending on the waste filler's selected treatment, processing, and rheological performance, thermal stability or interfacial adhesion of composites could be enhanced. Moreover, the appearance of the final materials could be adjusted by filler selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksander Hejna
- Institute of Materials Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo 3, 61-138 Poznań, Poland
- Department of Polymer Technology, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Mateusz Barczewski
- Institute of Materials Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo 3, 61-138 Poznań, Poland
| | - Paulina Kosmela
- Department of Polymer Technology, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Olga Mysiukiewicz
- Institute of Materials Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo 3, 61-138 Poznań, Poland
| | - Paweł Sulima
- Department of Genetics, Plant Breeding and Bioresource Engineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Plac Łódzki 3, 10-724 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Jerzy Andrzej Przyborowski
- Department of Genetics, Plant Breeding and Bioresource Engineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Plac Łódzki 3, 10-724 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Daria Kowalkowska-Zedler
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
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Hejna A. Clays as Inhibitors of Polyurethane Foams' Flammability. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 14:4826. [PMID: 34500914 PMCID: PMC8432671 DOI: 10.3390/ma14174826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Polyurethanes are a very important group of polymers with an extensive range of applications in different branches of industry. In the form of foams, they are mainly used in bedding, furniture, building, construction, and automotive sectors. Due to human safety reasons, these applications require an appropriate level of flame retardance, often required by various law regulations. Nevertheless, without the proper modifications, polyurethane foams are easily ignitable, highly flammable, and generate an enormous amount of smoke during combustion. Therefore, proper modifications or additives should be introduced to reduce their flammability. Except for the most popular phosphorus-, halogen-, or nitrogen-containing flame retardants, promising results were noted for the application of clays. Due to their small particle size and flake-like shape, they induce a "labyrinth effect" inside the foam, resulting in the delay of decomposition onset, reduction of smoke generation, and inhibition of heat, gas, and mass transfer. Moreover, clays can be easily modified with different organic compounds or used along with conventional flame retardants. Such an approach may often result in the synergy effect, which provides the exceptional reduction of foams' flammability. This paper summarizes the literature reports related to the applications of clays in the reduction of polyurethane foams' flammability, either by their incorporation as a nanofiller or by preparation of coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksander Hejna
- Department of Polymer Technology, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
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Khodaei D, Álvarez C, Mullen AM. Biodegradable Packaging Materials from Animal Processing Co-Products and Wastes: An Overview. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:2561. [PMID: 34372163 PMCID: PMC8348897 DOI: 10.3390/polym13152561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Biodegradable polymers are non-toxic, environmentally friendly biopolymers with considerable mechanical and barrier properties that can be degraded in industrial or home composting conditions. These biopolymers can be generated from sustainable natural sources or from the agricultural and animal processing co-products and wastes. Animals processing co-products are low value, underutilized, non-meat components that are generally generated from meat processing or slaughterhouse such as hide, blood, some offal etc. These are often converted into low-value products such as animal feed or in some cases disposed of as waste. Collagen, gelatin, keratin, myofibrillar proteins, and chitosan are the major value-added biopolymers obtained from the processing of animal's products. While these have many applications in food and pharmaceutical industries, a significant amount is underutilized and therefore hold potential for use in the generation of bioplastics. This review summarizes the research progress on the utilization of meat processing co-products to fabricate biodegradable polymers with the main focus on food industry applications. In addition, the factors affecting the application of biodegradable polymers in the packaging sector, their current industrial status, and regulations are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Anne Maria Mullen
- Department of Food Quality and Sensory Science, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland; (D.K.); (C.Á.)
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Abe MM, Martins JR, Sanvezzo PB, Macedo JV, Branciforti MC, Halley P, Botaro VR, Brienzo M. Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioplastics Production from Starch and Lignocellulosic Components. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:2484. [PMID: 34372086 PMCID: PMC8348970 DOI: 10.3390/polym13152484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The accumulation of plastic wastes in different environments has become a topic of major concern over the past decades; therefore, technologies and strategies aimed at mitigating the environmental impacts of petroleum products have gained worldwide relevance. In this scenario, the production of bioplastics mainly from polysaccharides such as starch is a growing strategy and a field of intense research. The use of plasticizers, the preparation of blends, and the reinforcement of bioplastics with lignocellulosic components have shown promising and environmentally safe alternatives for overcoming the limitations of bioplastics, mainly due to the availability, biodegradability, and biocompatibility of such resources. This review addresses the production of bioplastics composed of polysaccharides from plant biomass and its advantages and disadvantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateus Manabu Abe
- Institute for Research in Bioenergy (IPBEN), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro 13500-230, SP, Brazil; (M.M.A.); (J.R.M.); (J.V.M.)
| | - Júlia Ribeiro Martins
- Institute for Research in Bioenergy (IPBEN), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro 13500-230, SP, Brazil; (M.M.A.); (J.R.M.); (J.V.M.)
| | - Paula Bertolino Sanvezzo
- Department of Materials Engineering, São Carlos School of Engineering (EESC), University of São Paulo (USP), São Carlos 13566-590, SP, Brazil; (P.B.S.); (M.C.B.)
| | - João Vitor Macedo
- Institute for Research in Bioenergy (IPBEN), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro 13500-230, SP, Brazil; (M.M.A.); (J.R.M.); (J.V.M.)
| | - Marcia Cristina Branciforti
- Department of Materials Engineering, São Carlos School of Engineering (EESC), University of São Paulo (USP), São Carlos 13566-590, SP, Brazil; (P.B.S.); (M.C.B.)
| | - Peter Halley
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Level 3, Don Nicklin Building (74), St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
| | - Vagner Roberto Botaro
- Science and Technology Center for Sustainability—CCTS, Federal University of São Carlos, Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, Km 110, Sorocaba 18052-780, SP, Brazil;
| | - Michel Brienzo
- Institute for Research in Bioenergy (IPBEN), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rio Claro 13500-230, SP, Brazil; (M.M.A.); (J.R.M.); (J.V.M.)
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A Review of Bioplastics and Their Adoption in the Circular Economy. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13081229. [PMID: 33920269 PMCID: PMC8069747 DOI: 10.3390/polym13081229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The European Union is working towards the 2050 net-zero emissions goal and tackling the ever-growing environmental and sustainability crisis by implementing the European Green Deal. The shift towards a more sustainable society is intertwined with the production, use, and disposal of plastic in the European economy. Emissions generated by plastic production, plastic waste, littering and leakage in nature, insufficient recycling, are some of the issues addressed by the European Commission. Adoption of bioplastics–plastics that are biodegradable, bio-based, or both–is under assessment as one way to decouple society from the use of fossil resources, and to mitigate specific environmental risks related to plastic waste. In this work, we aim at reviewing the field of bioplastics, including standards and life cycle assessment studies, and discuss some of the challenges that can be currently identified with the adoption of these materials.
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Comparative Study of the Reinforcement Type Effect on the Thermomechanical Properties and Burning of Epoxy-Based Composites. JOURNAL OF COMPOSITES SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/jcs5030089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Aramid (AF), glass (GF), carbon (CF), basalt (BF), and flax (FF) fibers in the form of fabrics were used to produce the composites by hand-lay up method. The use of fabrics of similar grammage for composites’ manufacturing allowed for a comprehensive comparison of the properties of the final products. The most important task was to prepare a complex setup of mechanical and thermomechanical properties, supplemented by fire behavior analysis, and discuss both characteristics in their application range. The mechanical properties were investigated using tensile and flexural tests, as well as impact strength measurement. The investigation was improved by assessing thermomechanical properties under dynamic deformation conditions (dynamic mechanical–thermal analysis (DMTA)). All products were subjected to a fire test carried out using a cone calorimeter (CC).
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Andrzejewski J, Nowakowski M. Development of Toughened Flax Fiber Reinforced Composites. Modification of Poly(lactic acid)/Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) Blends by Reactive Extrusion Process. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 14:1523. [PMID: 33804651 PMCID: PMC8003650 DOI: 10.3390/ma14061523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The presented study focuses on the development of flax fiber (FF) reinforced composites prepared with the use of poly(lactic acid)/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)-PLA/PBAT blend system. This type of modification was aimed to increase impact properties of PLA-based composites, which are usually characterized by high brittleness. The PLA/PBAT blends preparation was carried out using melt blending technique, while part of the samples was prepared by reactive extrusion process with the addition of chain extender (CE) in the form of epoxy-functionalized oligomer. The properties of unreinforced blends was evaluated using injection molded samples. The composite samples were prepared by compression molding technique, while flax fibers reinforcement was in the form of plain fabric. The properties of the laminated sheets were investigated during mechanical test measurements (tensile, flexural, impact). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis was used to determine the thermal properties, while dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) and heat deflection temperature (HDT) measurements were conducted in order to measure the thermomechanical properties. Research procedure was supplemented with structure evaluation using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. The comparative study reveals that the properties of PLA/PBAT-based composites were more favorable, especially in the context of impact resistance improvement. However, for CE modified samples also the modulus and strength was improved. Structural observations after the impact tests confirmed the presence of the plastic deformation of PLA/PBAT matrix, which confirmed the favorable properties of the developed materials. The use of PBAT phase as the impact modifier strongly reduced the PLA brittleness, while the reactive extrusion process improves the fiber-matrix interactions leading to higher stiffness and strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacek Andrzejewski
- Polymer Processing Division, Institute of Materials Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, ul. Piotrowo 3, 61-138 Poznan, Poland
- MATRIX Students Club, Polymer Processing Division, Poznan University of Technology, ul. Piotrowo 3, 61-138 Poznan, Poland;
| | - Michał Nowakowski
- MATRIX Students Club, Polymer Processing Division, Poznan University of Technology, ul. Piotrowo 3, 61-138 Poznan, Poland;
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Technical Physics, Poznan University of Technology, ul. Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
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Nurazzi NM, Asyraf MRM, Khalina A, Abdullah N, Aisyah HA, Rafiqah SA, Sabaruddin FA, Kamarudin SH, Norrrahim MNF, Ilyas RA, Sapuan SM. A Review on Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composite for Bullet Proof and Ballistic Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:646. [PMID: 33671599 PMCID: PMC7926766 DOI: 10.3390/polym13040646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Even though natural fiber reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs) have been widely used in automotive and building industries, there is still a room to promote them to high-level structural applications such as primary structural component specifically for bullet proof and ballistic applications. The promising performance of Kevlar fabrics and aramid had widely implemented in numerous ballistic and bullet proof applications including for bullet proof helmets, vest, and other armor parts provides an acceptable range of protection to soldiers. However, disposal of used Kevlar products would affect the disruption of the ecosystem and pollutes the environment. Replacing the current Kevlar fabric and aramid in the protective equipment with natural fibers with enhanced kinetic energy absorption and dissipation has been significant effort to upgrade the ballistic performance of the composite structure with green and renewable resources. The vast availability, low cost and ease of manufacturing of natural fibers have grasped the attention of researchers around the globe in order to study them in heavy armory equipment and high durable products. The possibility in enhancement of natural fiber's mechanical properties has led the extension of research studies toward the application of NFRPCs for structural and ballistic applications. Hence, this article established a state-of-the-art review on the influence of utilizing various natural fibers as an alternative material to Kevlar fabric for armor structure system. The article also focuses on the effect of layering and sequencing of natural fiber fabric in the composites to advance the current armor structure system.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. M. Nurazzi
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (H.A.A.); (S.A.R.); (F.A.S.); (S.M.S.)
- Centre for Defence Foundation Studies, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Kem Perdana Sungai Besi 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - M. R. M. Asyraf
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - A. Khalina
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (H.A.A.); (S.A.R.); (F.A.S.); (S.M.S.)
| | - N. Abdullah
- Centre for Defence Foundation Studies, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Kem Perdana Sungai Besi 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - H. A. Aisyah
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (H.A.A.); (S.A.R.); (F.A.S.); (S.M.S.)
| | - S. Ayu Rafiqah
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (H.A.A.); (S.A.R.); (F.A.S.); (S.M.S.)
| | - F. A. Sabaruddin
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (H.A.A.); (S.A.R.); (F.A.S.); (S.M.S.)
- School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang 11800, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - S. H. Kamarudin
- School of Industrial Technology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam 40450, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - M. N. F. Norrrahim
- Research Center for Chemical Defence, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Kem Perdana Sungai Besi 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia;
| | - R. A. Ilyas
- School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai 81310, Johor, Malaysia;
| | - S. M. Sapuan
- Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia; (H.A.A.); (S.A.R.); (F.A.S.); (S.M.S.)
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Hejna A. Potential applications of by-products from the coffee industry in polymer technology - Current state and perspectives. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2021; 121:296-330. [PMID: 33406477 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Coffee is one of the most popular beverages in the world, and its popularity is continuously growing, which can be expressed by almost doubling production over the last three decades. Cultivation, processing, roasting, and brewing coffee are known for many years. These processes generate significant amounts of by-products since coffee bean stands for around 50% of the coffee cherry. Therefore, considering the current pro-ecological trends, it is essential to develop the utilization methods for the other 50% of the coffee cherry. Among the possibilities, much attention is drawn to polymer chemistry and technology. This industry branch may efficiently consume different types of lignocellulosic materials to use them as fillers for polymer composites or as intermediate sources of particular chemical compounds. Moreover, due to their chemical composition, coffee industry by-products may be used as additives modifying the oxidation resistance, antimicrobial, or antifungal properties of polymeric materials. These issues should be considered especially important in the case of biodegradable polymers, whose popularity is growing over the last years. This paper summarizes the literature reports related to the generation and composition of the coffee industry by-products, as well as the attempts of their incorporation into polymer technology. Moreover, potential directions of research based on the possibilities offered by the coffee industry by-products are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksander Hejna
- Department of Polymer Technology, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland.
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11
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Korol J, Hejna A, Burchart-Korol D, Wachowicz J. Comparative Analysis of Carbon, Ecological, and Water Footprints of Polypropylene-Based Composites Filled with Cotton, Jute and Kenaf Fibers. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13163541. [PMID: 32796660 PMCID: PMC7476004 DOI: 10.3390/ma13163541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Composites containing natural fibers are considered environmentally friendly materials which is related to the reduced use of fossil fuels and the emission of carbon dioxide compared to petroleum-based polymers. Nevertheless, a complete evaluation of their environmental impact requires a broader view. This paper presents a carbon, ecological, and water footprints assessment of polypropylene-based composites filled with cotton, jute, and kenaf fibers based on a standardized European pallet (EUR-pallet) case study. Obtained results were compared with unmodified polypropylene and composite with glass fibers. Incorporation of 30 wt% of cotton, jute, and kenaf fibers into a polypropylene matrix reduced its carbon footprint by 3%, 18%, and 18%, respectively. Regarding the ecological footprint, an 8.2% and 9.4% reduction for jute and kenaf fibers were noted, while for cotton fibers, its value increased by 52%. For these footprints, the use of jute and kenaf fibers was more beneficial than glass fibers. Nevertheless, the application of natural fibers caused a 286%, 758%, and 891% drastic increase of water footprint of the final product, which was mainly affected by cultivation and irrigation of crops. Therefore, in a holistic view, the incorporation of natural fibers into the polypropylene matrix definitely cannot be impartially considered as an environmentally friendly solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerzy Korol
- Department of Material Engineering, Central Mining Institute, Pl. Gwarków 1, 40-166 Katowice, Poland;
- Correspondence: (J.K.); (D.B.-K.)
| | - Aleksander Hejna
- Department of Polymer Technology, Gdansk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland;
| | - Dorota Burchart-Korol
- Faculty of Transport and Aviation Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Krasińskiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland
- Correspondence: (J.K.); (D.B.-K.)
| | - Jan Wachowicz
- Department of Material Engineering, Central Mining Institute, Pl. Gwarków 1, 40-166 Katowice, Poland;
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Abdul Azam FA, Rajendran Royan NR, Yuhana NY, Mohd Radzuan NA, Ahmad S, Sulong AB. Fabrication of Porous Recycled HDPE Biocomposites Foam: Effect of Rice Husk Filler Contents and Surface Treatments on the Mechanical Properties. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12020475. [PMID: 32092992 PMCID: PMC7077617 DOI: 10.3390/polym12020475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, a biodegradable, cheap and durable recycled high-density polyethylene (rHDPE) polymer reinforced with rice husk (RH) fibre was fabricated into a foam structure through several processes, including extrusion, internal mixing and hot pressing. The effect of filler loading on the properties of the foam and the influence of RH surface treatments on the filler–matrix adhesion and mechanical properties of the composite foam were investigated. The morphological examination shows that 50 wt.% filler content resulted in an effective dispersion of cells with the smallest cell size (58.3 µm) and the highest density (7.62 × 1011 sel/cm3). This small cell size benefits the mechanical properties. Results indicate that the tensile strength and the Young’s modulus of the alkali-treated RH/rHDPE composite foam are the highest amongst the treatments (10.83 MPa and 858 MPa, respectively), followed by UV/O3, which has shown considerable increments compared with the untreated composite. The flexural and impact tests also show the increment in strength for the composite foam after chemical treatment. Although the UV/O3 surface treatment has minor influence on the mechanical enhancement of the composite foam, this method may be a reliable surface treatment of the fibre-reinforced composite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farah Atiqah Abdul Azam
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan 43600, Malaysia; (F.A.A.A.); (N.R.R.R.); (N.Y.Y.); (N.A.M.R.)
| | - Nishata Royan Rajendran Royan
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan 43600, Malaysia; (F.A.A.A.); (N.R.R.R.); (N.Y.Y.); (N.A.M.R.)
| | - Nor Yuliana Yuhana
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan 43600, Malaysia; (F.A.A.A.); (N.R.R.R.); (N.Y.Y.); (N.A.M.R.)
| | - Nabilah Afiqah Mohd Radzuan
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan 43600, Malaysia; (F.A.A.A.); (N.R.R.R.); (N.Y.Y.); (N.A.M.R.)
| | - Sahrim Ahmad
- School of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan 43600, Malaysia;
| | - Abu Bakar Sulong
- Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan 43600, Malaysia; (F.A.A.A.); (N.R.R.R.); (N.Y.Y.); (N.A.M.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +60-3-89216678
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