Development of Carboxymethyl Chitosan Nanoparticles Prepared by Ultrasound-Assisted Technique for a Clindamycin HCl Carrier

Chitosan: An overview of its properties, solubility, functional technologies, food and health applications

The properties and potential applications of chitosan have attracted a lot of interest; each year, the number of publications and patents based on this polymer increases. A significant obstacle to the application of chitosan is its limited solubility in basic and neutral solutions. The fact that chitosan is a series of molecules with variations in size, content, and monomer distribution rather than a single polymer with a well-defined structure and a natural origin is another significant barrier. Some of the claimed biological qualities are distinct, and these characteristics have a fundamental effect on the polymer's technological and biological performance. The poor solubility of the polymer can be improved by chitosan chemistry, and in this assessment, we discuss the changes made to make chitosan more soluble and its possible uses. We concentrate on a few of the primary biological characteristics of chitosan and how they relate to the physicochemical characteristics of the polymer. The use of chitosan in the environmentally friendly manufacture of metallic nanoparticles as well as its usage as a booster for biocatalysts are two further applications of polymers that are linked to green processes that we revisit. This study also presents information about utilizing chitosan's technological advantages.

Smart Ultrasound-responsive Polymers for Drug Delivery: An Overview on Advanced Stimuli-sensitive Materials and Techniques

In recent years, a notable advancement has occurred in the domain of drug delivery systems via the integration of intelligent polymers that respond to ultrasound. The implementation of this groundbreaking methodology has significantly revolutionised the controlled and precise delivery of therapeutic interventions. An in-depth investigation is conducted into the most recent developments in ultrasonic stimulus-responsive materials and techniques for the purpose of accomplishing precise medication administration. The investigation begins with an exhaustive synopsis of the foundational principles underlying drug delivery systems that react to ultrasonic stimuli, focusing specifically on the complex interplay between polymers and ultrasound waves. Significant attention is devoted to the development of polymers that demonstrate tailored responsiveness to ultrasound, thereby exemplifying their versatility in generating controlled drug release patterns. Numerous classifications of intelligent polymers are examined in the discussion, including those that react to variations in temperature, pH, and enzymes. When coupled with ultrasonic stimuli, these polymers offer a sophisticated framework for the precise manipulation of drug release in terms of both temporal and spatial dimensions. The present study aims to examine the synergistic effects of responsive polymers and ultrasound in overcoming biological barriers such as the blood-brain barrier and the gastrointestinal tract. By doing so, it seeks to shed light on the potential applications of these materials in intricate clinical scenarios. The issues and future prospects of intelligent ultrasound-responsive polymers in the context of drug delivery are critically analysed in this article. The objective of this study is to offer valuable perspectives on the challenges that must be overcome to enable the effective implementation of these technologies. The primary objective of this comprehensive review is to furnish researchers, clinicians, and pharmaceutical scientists with a wealth of information that will serve as a guide for forthcoming developments in the development and enhancement of intelligent drug delivery systems that employ ultrasound-responsive polymers to attain superior therapeutic outcomes.

Advances in polymeric nano-delivery systems targeting hair follicles for the treatment of acne

Acne is a common chronic inflammatory disorder of the sebaceous gland in the hair follicle. Commonly used external medications cause skin irritation, and the transdermal capacity is weak, making it difficult to penetrate the cuticle skin barrier. Hair follicles can aid in the breakdown of this barrier. As nanomaterials progress, polymer-based nanocarriers are routinely used for hair follicle drug delivery to treat acne and other skin issues. Based on the physiological and anatomical characteristics of hair follicles, this paper discusses factors affecting hair follicle delivery by polymer nanocarriers, summarizes the common combination technology to improve the targeting of hair follicles by carriers, and finally reviews the most recent research progress of different polymer nanodrug-delivery systems for the treatment of acne by targeting hair follicles.

Medical Applications and Cellular Mechanisms of Action of Carboxymethyl Chitosan Hydrogels

Carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) hydrogels have been investigated in biomedical research because of their versatile properties that make them suitable for various medical applications. Key properties that are especially valuable for biomedical use include biocompatibility, tailored solid-like mechanical characteristics, biodegradability, antibacterial activity, moisture retention, and pH stimuli-sensitive swelling. These features offer advantages such as enhanced healing, promotion of granulation tissue formation, and facilitation of neutrophil migration. As a result, CMCS hydrogels are favorable materials for applications in biopharmaceuticals, drug delivery systems, wound healing, tissue engineering, and more. Understanding the interactions between CMCS hydrogels and biological systems, with a focus on their influence on cellular behavior, is crucial for leveraging their versatility. Because of the constantly growing interest in chitosan and its derivative hydrogels in biomedical research and applications, the present review aims to provide updated insights into the potential medical applications of CMCS based on recent findings. Additionally, we comprehensively elucidated the cellular mechanisms underlying the actions of these hydrogels in medical settings. In summary, this paper recapitulates valuable data gathered from the current literature, offering perspectives for further development and utilization of carboxymethyl hydrogels in various medical contexts.

Folate-modified carboxymethyl chitosan-based drug delivery system for breast cancer specific combination therapy via regulating mitochondrial calcium concentration

Although various drug delivery systems that regulated Ca2+ concentration has been developed for tumor therapy, their application still presented significant challenges due to the complex preparation and introduction of a large number of inorganic molecules that might cause serious toxic effects. To solve these problems, a folate-functionalized carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS)/calcium phosphate hybrid nanoparticle (CF/CaP) with Ca2+ production was designed to treat breast cancer combined with the Ca2+ inhibitory effect of encapsulated curcumin (Cur). It was demonstrated that the optimal CF/CaP nanoparticles loaded with Cur (C@CF/CaP) were spherical nanoparticles, which exhibited a smaller size at about 179 nm than non-targeted nanoparticles with size at about 234 nm. C@CF/CaP had good biocompatibility, high stability and acid responsive drug release. Compared with the neutral environment, the cumulative release of Cur was >70 % after culture for 36 h at pH 5.0. Compared with non-targeted nanoparticles, C@CF/CaP could specifically target tumor tissues and then enter tumor cells through folate receptor-mediated endocytosis. C@CF/CaP could cause mitochondrial Ca2+ overload, trigger the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway, destroy the mitochondrial structure and finally have good anti-tumor efficiency. The results proved that Ca2+ nanomodulators based on CMCS might provide a potential organelle targeting strategy for cancer therapy.

Carboxymethyl Chitosan Hydrogels for Effective Wound Healing-An Animal Study

Hydrogels have various applications in medicine, for example, in systems for controlled drug release or as wound dressings, where they provide an appropriate environment for healing and constitute a barrier to microorganisms. The aim of this study was to evaluate the action of carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) hydrogels in wound healing therapy in vivo using a laboratory rat model. The hydrogels were formed from aqueous solutions of a CMCS biopolymer via electron beam irradiation, with the presence of a crosslinking agent of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate. A histopathological examination of injured tissue, using a model of a hard-to-heal wound, indicated that the CMCS hydrogel supported healing. The new gel dressing, being noncytotoxic, presents great potential in wound treatment, with positive effects on the amount of inflammatory infiltration, young collagen formation, and the degree of epidermalization. A key advantage of the current approach (i.e., using competitive radiation technology for synthesis) is that it includes only one step, with the product being sterilized as it is synthesized. The hydrogel effectively supports wound healing and can serve as a bio-based and biodegradable platform for other medical applications.

Carboxymethyl Chitosan Microgels for Sustained Delivery of Vancomycin and Long-Lasting Antibacterial Effects

Carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCh) is a unique polysaccharide with functional groups that can develop positive and negative charges due to the abundant numbers of amine and carboxylic acid groups. CMCh is widely used in different areas due to its excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, water solubility, and chelating ability. CMCh microgels were synthesized in a microemulsion environment using divinyl sulfone (DVS) as a crosslinking agent. CMCh microgel with tailored size and zeta potential values were obtained in a single stem by crosslinking CMCh in a water-in-oil environment. The spherical microgel structure is confirmed by SEM analysis. The sizes of CMCh microgels varied from one micrometer to tens of micrometers. The isoelectric point of CMCh microgels was determined as pH 4.4. Biocompatibility of CMCh microgels was verified on L929 fibroblasts with 96.5 ± 1.5% cell viability at 1 mg/mL concentration. The drug-carrying abilities of CMCh microgels were evaluated by loading Vancomycin (Van) antibiotic as a model drug. Furthermore, the antibacterial activity efficiency of Van-loaded CMCh microgels (Van@CMCh) was investigated. The MIC values of the released drug from Van@CMCh microgels were found to be 68.6 and 7.95 µg/mL against E. coli and S. aureus, respectively, at 24 h contact time. Disk diffusion tests confirmed that Van@CMCh microgels, especially for Gram-positive (S. aureus) bacteria, revealed long-lasting inhibitory effects on bacteria growth up to 72 h.

A Review on Antibacterial Biomaterials in Biomedical Applications: From Materials Perspective to Bioinks Design

In tissue engineering, three-dimensional (3D) printing is an emerging approach to producing functioning tissue constructs to repair wounds and repair or replace sick tissue/organs. It allows for precise control of materials and other components in the tissue constructs in an automated way, potentially permitting great throughput production. An ink made using one or multiple biomaterials can be 3D printed into tissue constructs by the printing process; though promising in tissue engineering, the printed constructs have also been reported to have the ability to lead to the emergence of unforeseen illnesses and failure due to biomaterial-related infections. Numerous approaches and/or strategies have been developed to combat biomaterial-related infections, and among them, natural biomaterials, surface treatment of biomaterials, and incorporating inorganic agents have been widely employed for the construct fabrication by 3D printing. Despite various attempts to synthesize and/or optimize the inks for 3D printing, the incidence of infection in the implanted tissue constructs remains one of the most significant issues. For the first time, here we present an overview of inks with antibacterial properties for 3D printing, focusing on the principles and strategies to accomplish biomaterials with anti-infective properties, and the synthesis of metallic ion-containing ink, chitosan-containing inks, and other antibacterial inks. Related discussions regarding the mechanics of biofilm formation and antibacterial performance are also presented, along with future perspectives of the importance of developing printable inks.