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Composite Electrodes Based on Carbon Materials Decorated with Hg Nanoparticles for the Simultaneous Detection of Cd(II), Pb(II) and Cu(II). CHEMOSENSORS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors10040148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Monitoring water quality has become a goal to prevent issues related to human health and environmental conditions. In this sense, the concentration of metal ions in water sources is screened, as these are considered persistent contaminants. In this work, we describe the implementation of customized graphite electrodes decorated with two types of Hg nanoparticles (Hg-NPs), optimized toward the electrochemical detection of Cd, Pb and Cu. Here, we combine Hg, a well-known property to form alloys with other metals, with the nanoscale features of Hg-NPs, resulting in improved electrochemical sensors towards these analytes with a substantial reduction in the used Hg amount. Hg-NPs were synthesized using poly(diallyldimethylammonium) chloride (PDDA) in a combined role as a reducing and stabilizing agent, and then appropriately characterized by means of Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Zeta Potential. The surface of composite electrodes with optimized graphite content was modified by the drop-casting of the prepared Hg-NPs. The obtained nanocomposite electrodes were morphologically characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and electrochemically by Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). The results show that the Hg-NP-modified electrodes present better responses towards Cd(II), Pb(II) and Cu(II) detection in comparison with the bare graphite electrode. Analytical performance of sensors was evaluated by square-wave anodic stripping voltammetry (SWASV), obtaining a linear range of 0.005–0.5 mg·L−1 for Cd2+, of 0.028–0.37 mg·L−1 for Pb2+ and of 0.057–1.1 mg·L−1 for Cu2+. Real samples were analyzed using SWASV, showing good agreement with the recovery values of inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) measurements.
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Zhou W, Liu G, Yang B, Ji Q, Xiang W, He H, Xu Z, Qi C, Li S, Yang S, Xu C. Review on application of perylene diimide (PDI)-based materials in environment: Pollutant detection and degradation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 780:146483. [PMID: 33773344 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Environment pollution is getting serious and various poisonous contaminants with chemical durability, biotoxicity and bioaccumulation have been widespreadly discovered in municipal wastewaters and surface water. The detection and removal of pollutants show great significance for the protection of human health and other organisms. Due to its distinctive physical and chemical properties, perylene diimide (PDI) has received widespread attention from different research fields, especially in the area of environment. In this review, a comprehensive summary of the development of PDI-based materials in fluorescence detection and advanced oxidation technology for environment was introduced. Firstly, we chiefly presented the recent progress about the synthesis of PDI and PDI-based nanomaterials. Then, their application in fluorescence detection for environment was presented and categorized, principally including the detection of heavy metal ions, harmful anions and organic contaminants in the environment. In addition, the application of PDI and PDI-based materials in different advanced oxidation technologies for environment, such as photocatalysis, photoelectrocatalysis, Fenton and Fenton-like reaction and persulfate activation, was also summarized. At last, the challenges and future prospects of PDI-based materials in environmental applications were discussed. This review focuses on presenting the practical applications of PDI and PDI-based materials as fluorescent probes or catalysts (especially photocatalysts) in the detection of hazardous substances or catalytic elimination of organic contaminants. The contents are aimed at supplying the researchers with a deeper understanding of PDI and PDI-based materials and encouraging their further development in environmental applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenwu Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, PR China; School of Environment, Jiangsu Engineering Lab of Water and Soil Eco-Remediation, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Synergetic Control and Joint Remediation for Soil & Water Pollution, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, PR China; College of Ecology and Environment, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, PR China
| | - Guo Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenvironment Protection, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, PR China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Synergetic Control and Joint Remediation for Soil & Water Pollution, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, PR China; College of Ecology and Environment, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, PR China
| | - Bing Yang
- School of Environment, Jiangsu Engineering Lab of Water and Soil Eco-Remediation, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Qiuyi Ji
- School of Environment, Jiangsu Engineering Lab of Water and Soil Eco-Remediation, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Weiming Xiang
- School of Environment, Jiangsu Engineering Lab of Water and Soil Eco-Remediation, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Huan He
- School of Environment, Jiangsu Engineering Lab of Water and Soil Eco-Remediation, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Zhe Xu
- School of Environment, Jiangsu Engineering Lab of Water and Soil Eco-Remediation, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Chengdu Qi
- School of Environment, Jiangsu Engineering Lab of Water and Soil Eco-Remediation, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Shiyin Li
- School of Environment, Jiangsu Engineering Lab of Water and Soil Eco-Remediation, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Shaogui Yang
- School of Environment, Jiangsu Engineering Lab of Water and Soil Eco-Remediation, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China.
| | - Chenmin Xu
- School of Environment, Jiangsu Engineering Lab of Water and Soil Eco-Remediation, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, PR China.
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Schwarze T, Riemer J, Müller H, John L, Holdt H, Wessig P. Na + Selective Fluorescent Tools Based on Fluorescence Intensity Enhancements, Lifetime Changes, and on a Ratiometric Response. Chemistry 2019; 25:12412-12422. [PMID: 31271482 PMCID: PMC6790620 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201902536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Over the years, we developed highly selective fluorescent probes for K+ in water, which show K+ -induced fluorescence intensity enhancements, lifetime changes, or a ratiometric behavior at two emission wavelengths (cf. Scheme 1, K1-K4). In this paper, we introduce selective fluorescent probes for Na+ in water, which also show Na+ induced signal changes, which are analyzed by diverse fluorescence techniques. Initially, we synthesized the fluorescent probes 2, 4, 5, 6 and 10 for a fluorescence analysis by intensity enhancements at one wavelength by varying the Na+ responsive ionophore unit and the fluorophore moiety to adjust different Kd values for an intra- or extracellular Na+ analysis. Thus, we found that 2, 4 and 5 are Na+ selective fluorescent tools, which are able to measure physiologically important Na+ levels at wavelengths higher than 500 nm. Secondly, we developed the fluorescent probes 7 and 8 to analyze precise Na+ levels by fluorescence lifetime changes. Herein, only 8 (Kd =106 mm) is a capable fluorescent tool to measure Na+ levels in blood samples by lifetime changes. Finally, the fluorescent probe 9 was designed to show a Na+ induced ratiometric fluorescence behavior at two emission wavelengths. As desired, 9 (Kd =78 mm) showed a ratiometric fluorescence response towards Na+ ions and is a suitable tool to measure physiologically relevant Na+ levels by the intensity change of two emission wavelengths at 404 nm and 492 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Schwarze
- Institut für Chemie, Anorganische ChemieUniversität PotsdamKarl-Liebknecht-Str. 24–2514476GolmGermany
| | - Janine Riemer
- Institut für Chemie, Anorganische ChemieUniversität PotsdamKarl-Liebknecht-Str. 24–2514476GolmGermany
| | - Holger Müller
- Institut für Chemie, Anorganische ChemieUniversität PotsdamKarl-Liebknecht-Str. 24–2514476GolmGermany
| | - Leonard John
- Institut für ChemieBioorganische ChemieUniversität PotsdamKarl-Liebknecht-Str. 24–2514476GolmGermany
| | - Hans‐Jürgen Holdt
- Institut für Chemie, Anorganische ChemieUniversität PotsdamKarl-Liebknecht-Str. 24–2514476GolmGermany
| | - Pablo Wessig
- Institut für ChemieBioorganische ChemieUniversität PotsdamKarl-Liebknecht-Str. 24–2514476GolmGermany
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Microfluidic DNA-based potassium nanosensors for improved dialysis treatment. Biomed Eng Online 2019; 18:73. [PMID: 31185982 PMCID: PMC6558827 DOI: 10.1186/s12938-019-0692-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) have failed kidney function, and often must be treated with hemodialysis to extend the patient's life by artificially removing excess fluid and toxins from the blood. However, life-threatening treatment complications can occur because hemodialysis protocols are adjusted infrequently, as opposed to the kidneys which filter blood continuously. Infrequent blood tests, about once per month on average, are used to adjust hemodialysis protocols and as a result, patients can experience electrolyte imbalances, which can contribute to premature patient deaths from treatment complications, such as sudden cardiac death. Since hemodialysis can lead to blood loss, drawing additional blood for tests to assess the patient's kidney function and blood markers is limited. However, sampling multiple drops of blood per session using a microfluidic device has the potential to reduce not only the amount of blood drawn and avoid unnecessary venipuncture, but also reduce costs by limiting medical complications of hemodialysis and provide a more comprehensive assessment of the patient's health status in real time. RESULT We present preliminary proof-of-concept results of a microfluidic device which uses DNA-based fluorescence nanosensors to measure potassium concentration in a flowing solution. In a matter of minutes, the flowing potassium solution reduced the fluorescence intensity of the nanosensors to a steady-state value. CONCLUSIONS These proof-of-concept results demonstrate the ability of our DNA-based nanosensors to measure potassium concentration in a microfluidic device. The long-term goal is to integrate this technology with a device to measure potassium and eventually other blood contents multiple times throughout a hemodialysis session, enabling protocol adjustment similar to a healthy kidney.
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Pidenko SA, Burmistrova NA, Shuvalov AA, Chibrova AA, Skibina YS, Goryacheva IY. Microstructured optical fiber-based luminescent biosensing: Is there any light at the end of the tunnel? - A review. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1019:14-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Revised: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Schwarze T, Müller H, Schmidt D, Riemer J, Holdt HJ. Design of Na+
-Selective Fluorescent Probes: A Systematic Study of the Na+
-Complex Stability and the Na+
/K+
Selectivity in Acetonitrile and Water. Chemistry 2017; 23:7255-7263. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201605986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Schwarze
- Institut für Chemie; Anorganische Chemie; Universität Potsdam; Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25 14476 Golm Germany
| | - Holger Müller
- Institut für Chemie; Anorganische Chemie; Universität Potsdam; Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25 14476 Golm Germany
| | - Darya Schmidt
- Institut für Chemie; Anorganische Chemie; Universität Potsdam; Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25 14476 Golm Germany
| | - Janine Riemer
- Institut für Chemie; Anorganische Chemie; Universität Potsdam; Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25 14476 Golm Germany
| | - Hans-Jürgen Holdt
- Institut für Chemie; Anorganische Chemie; Universität Potsdam; Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25 14476 Golm Germany
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Jose AR, Vikraman AE, Girish Kumar K. Photoinduced electron transfer between quantum dots and pralidoxime: an efficient sensing strategy. NEW J CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7nj00795g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Photoinduced electron transfer (PET)-mediated fluorescence quenching of CdTe/CdS quantum dots by pralidoxime (PAM).
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Affiliation(s)
- A. R. Jose
- Cochin University of Science and Technology
- Department of Applied Chemistry Kochi
- Kerala 682 022
- India
| | - A. E. Vikraman
- Cochin University of Science and Technology
- Department of Applied Chemistry Kochi
- Kerala 682 022
- India
| | - K. Girish Kumar
- Cochin University of Science and Technology
- Department of Applied Chemistry Kochi
- Kerala 682 022
- India
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Sharma MK, Wieringa FP, Frijns AJH, Kooman JP. On-line monitoring of electrolytes in hemodialysis: on the road towards individualizing treatment. Expert Rev Med Devices 2016; 13:933-943. [DOI: 10.1080/17434440.2016.1230494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Manoj K. Sharma
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Fokko P. Wieringa
- TNO Science & Industry, Division of Medical Equipment, Delft, Netherlands
- Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Arjan J. H. Frijns
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Jeroen P. Kooman
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University Hospital Maastricht, Maastricht, Netherlands
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Dhenadhayalan N, Lee HL, Yadav K, Lin KC, Lin YT, Chang AHH. Silicon Quantum Dot-Based Fluorescence Turn-On Metal Ion Sensors in Live Cells. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:23953-62. [PMID: 27541983 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b07789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sensor systems are designed by varying aza-crown ether moiety in silicon quantum dots (SiQDs) for detecting individual Mg(2+), Ca(2+), and Mn(2+) metal ions with significant selectivity and sensitivity. The detection limit of Mg(2+), Ca(2+), and Mn(2+) can reach 1.81, 3.15, and 0.47 μM, respectively. Upon excitation of the SiQDs which are coordinated with aza-crown ethers, the photoinduced electron transfer (PET) takes place from aza-crown ether moiety to the valence band of SiQDs core such that the reduced probability of electron-hole recombination may diminish the subsequent fluorescence. The fluorescence suppression caused by such PET effect will be relieved after selective metal ion is added. The charge-electron binding force between the metal ion and aza-crown ether hinders the PET and thereby restores the fluorescence of SiQDs. The design of sensor system is based on the fluorescence "turn-on" of SiQDs while in search of the appropriate metal ion. For practical application, the sensing capabilities of metal ions in the live cells are performed and the confocal image results reveal their promising applicability as an effective and nontoxic metal ion sensor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namasivayam Dhenadhayalan
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University , Taipei 106, Taiwan
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica , Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Lung Lee
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University , Taipei 106, Taiwan
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica , Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Kanchan Yadav
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University , Taipei 106, Taiwan
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica , Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - King-Chuen Lin
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University , Taipei 106, Taiwan
- Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica , Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Yih-Tyng Lin
- Department of Chemistry, National Dong Hwa University , Shoufeng, Hualien 974, Taiwan
| | - A H H Chang
- Department of Chemistry, National Dong Hwa University , Shoufeng, Hualien 974, Taiwan
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Hamilton GRC, Sahoo SK, Kamila S, Singh N, Kaur N, Hyland BW, Callan JF. Optical probes for the detection of protons, and alkali and alkaline earth metal cations. Chem Soc Rev 2015; 44:4415-32. [PMID: 25742963 DOI: 10.1039/c4cs00365a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Luminescent sensors and switches continue to play a key role in shaping our understanding of key biochemical processes, assist in the diagnosis of disease and contribute to the design of new drugs and therapies. Similarly, their contribution to the environment cannot be understated as they offer a portable means to undertake field testing for hazardous chemicals and pollutants such as heavy metals. From a physiological perspective, the Group I and II metal ions are among the most important in the periodic table with blood plasma levels of H(+), Na(+) and Ca(2+) being indicators of several possible disease states. In this review, we examine the progress that has been made in the development of luminescent probes for Group I and Group II ions as well as protons. The potential applications of these probes and the mechanism involved in controlling their luminescent response upon analyte binding will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graham R C Hamilton
- Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, BT52 1SA, UK.
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11
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Heng S, Nguyen MC, Kostecki R, Monro TM, Abell AD. Nanoliter-scale, regenerable ion sensor: sensing with a surface functionalized microstructured optical fibre. RSC Adv 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra40321a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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12
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Warren-Smith SC, Nie G, Schartner EP, Salamonsen LA, Monro TM. Enzyme activity assays within microstructured optical fibers enabled by automated alignment. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2012; 3:3304-3313. [PMID: 23243579 PMCID: PMC3521297 DOI: 10.1364/boe.3.003304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2012] [Revised: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 11/09/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A fluorescence-based enzyme activity assay has been demonstrated within a small-core microstructured optical fiber (MOF) for the first time. To achieve this, a reflection-based automated alignment system has been developed, which uses feedback and piezoelectric actuators to maintain optical alignment. The auto-alignment system provides optical stability for the time required to perform an activity assay. The chosen assay is based on the enzyme proprotein convertase 5/6 (PC6) and has important applications in women's health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen C. Warren-Smith
- Institute for Photonics & Advanced Sensing (IPAS) and School of Chemistry & Physics, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Guiying Nie
- Prince Henry’s Institute of Medical Research, PO Box 5152, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Erik P. Schartner
- Institute for Photonics & Advanced Sensing (IPAS) and School of Chemistry & Physics, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Lois A. Salamonsen
- Prince Henry’s Institute of Medical Research, PO Box 5152, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Tanya M. Monro
- Institute for Photonics & Advanced Sensing (IPAS) and School of Chemistry & Physics, The University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
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Benniston AC, Winstanley TPL, Lemmetyinen H, Tkachenko NV, Harrington RW, Wills C. Large Stokes Shift Fluorescent Dyes Based on a Highly Substituted Terephthalic Acid Core. Org Lett 2012; 14:1374-7. [DOI: 10.1021/ol300038e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C. Benniston
- Molecular Photonics Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K., Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 541, 33101 Finland, and Crystallography Laboratory, NMR Analytical Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K
| | - Thomas P. L. Winstanley
- Molecular Photonics Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K., Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 541, 33101 Finland, and Crystallography Laboratory, NMR Analytical Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K
| | - Helge Lemmetyinen
- Molecular Photonics Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K., Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 541, 33101 Finland, and Crystallography Laboratory, NMR Analytical Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K
| | - Nikolai V. Tkachenko
- Molecular Photonics Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K., Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 541, 33101 Finland, and Crystallography Laboratory, NMR Analytical Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K
| | - Ross W. Harrington
- Molecular Photonics Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K., Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 541, 33101 Finland, and Crystallography Laboratory, NMR Analytical Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K
| | - Corinne Wills
- Molecular Photonics Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K., Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 541, 33101 Finland, and Crystallography Laboratory, NMR Analytical Laboratory, School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K
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