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Lee D, Cherry SR, Kwon SI. Colored reflectors to improve coincidence timing resolution of BGO-based time-of-flight PET detectors. Phys Med Biol 2023; 68:10.1088/1361-6560/acf027. [PMID: 37579768 PMCID: PMC10722960 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/acf027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023]
Abstract
Time-of-flight (TOF) positron emission tomography (PET) detectors improve the signal-to-noise ratio of PET images by limiting the position of the generation of two 511 keV gamma-rays in space using the arrival time difference between the two photons. Unfortunately, bismuth germanate (BGO), widely used in conventional PET detectors, was limited as a TOF PET scintillator due to the relatively slow decay time of the scintillation photons. However, prompt Cerenkov light in BGO has been identified in addition to scintillation photons. Using Cerenkov photons for timing has significantly improved the coincidence timing resolution (CTR) of BGO. Based on this, further research on improving the CTR for a BGO-based TOF PET system is being actively conducted. Wrapping materials for BGO pixels have primarily employed white reflectors to most efficiently collect scintillation light. White reflectors have customarily been used as reflectors for BGO pixels even after Cerenkov light began to be utilized for timing calculations in pixel-level experiments. However, when the arrival-time differences of the two 511 keV annihilations photons were measured with pure Cerenkov radiators, painting the lateral sides of the radiators black can improve CTR by suppressing the reflection of Cerenkov photons. The use of BGO for TOF PET detectors requires simultaneously minimizing scintillation loss for good energy information and suppressing reflected Cerenkov photons for better timing performance. Thus, reflectors for BGO pixels should be optimized for better timing and energy performance. In this study, colored polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tapes with discontinuous reflectance values at specific wavelengths were applied as a BGO reflector. We hypothesized that CTR could be enhanced by selectively suppressing reflected Cerenkov photons with an optimum colored reflector on the BGO pixel while minimizing scintillation photon loss. CTRs were investigated utilizing white and three colors (yellow, red, and green) PTFE tapes as a reflector. In addition, black-painted PTFE tape and enhanced specular reflector film were investigated as reference reflector materials. When 3 × 3 × 20 mm3BGO pixels were wrapped with the yellow PTFE reflector, the CTR was significantly improved to 365 ± 5 ps from 403 ± 14 ps measured with the conventional white PTFE reflector. Adequate energy information was still obtained with only 4.1% degradation in light collection compared to the white reflector. Colored reflectors show the possibility to further improve CTR for BGO pixels with optimum reflectance design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daehee Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States of America
| | - Simon R Cherry
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States of America
| | - Sun Il Kwon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States of America
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2
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Woodbridge E, Connor DT, Verbelen Y, Hine D, Richardson T, Scott TB. Airborne gamma-ray mapping using fixed-wing vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) uncrewed aerial vehicles. Front Robot AI 2023; 10:1137763. [PMID: 37448876 PMCID: PMC10337992 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2023.1137763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Low-cost uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) are replacing manned aircraft for airborne radiation mapping applications such as nuclear accident response scenarios or surveying ore deposits and mine sites because of their cost-effectiveness and ability to conduct surveys at lower altitude compared to manned counterparts. Both multi-rotor UAVs and fixed-wing UAVs are well established technologies for aerial radiation mapping applications, however, both also have drawbacks: multi-rotor UAVs are very limited in flight time and range, and fixed-wing UAVs usually require facilities for take-off and landing. A compromise solution is introduced in this work, using a fixed-wing vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) UAV that combines the flexibility of a multi-rotor UAV with the range and flight time of a fixed-wing UAV. The first implementation of a VTOL with radiation mapping capabilities is presented, based on a commercial WingtraOne UAV augmented with CsI scintillator and CZT semiconductor gamma spectrometers. The radiation mapping capabilities of the prototype are demonstrated in a case study, mapping the distribution of radionuclides around the South Terras legacy uranium mine in the south of England, United Kingdom, and the results are compared with previous studies using multi-rotor and manned aircraft to survey the same area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewan Woodbridge
- H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory, Interface Analysis Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Dean T. Connor
- H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory, Interface Analysis Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
- National Nuclear Laboratory, Warrington, United Kingdom
| | - Yannick Verbelen
- H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory, Interface Analysis Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Duncan Hine
- Bristol Flight Lab, Faculty of Engineering, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Tom Richardson
- Bristol Flight Lab, Faculty of Engineering, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas B. Scott
- H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory, Interface Analysis Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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3
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Xu H, Ai X, Wang Y, Chen W, Li Z, Guan X, Wei X, Xie J, Chen Y. Ground Radioactivity Distribution Reconstruction and Dose Rate Estimation Based on Spectrum Deconvolution. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:5628. [PMID: 37420794 DOI: 10.3390/s23125628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
Estimating the gamma dose rate at one meter above ground level and determining the distribution of radioactive pollution from aerial radiation monitoring data are the core technical issues of unmanned aerial vehicle nuclear radiation monitoring. In this paper, a reconstruction algorithm of the ground radioactivity distribution based on spectral deconvolution was proposed for the problem of regional surface source radioactivity distribution reconstruction and dose rate estimation. The algorithm estimates unknown radioactive nuclide types and their distributions using spectrum deconvolution and introduces energy windows to improve the accuracy of the deconvolution results, achieving accurate reconstruction of multiple continuous distribution radioactive nuclides and their distributions, as well as dose rate estimation of one meter above ground level. The feasibility and effectiveness of the method were verified through cases of single-nuclide (137Cs) and multi-nuclide (137Cs and 60Co) surface sources by modeling and solving them. The results showed that the cosine similarities between the estimated ground radioactivity distribution and dose rate distribution with the true value were 0.9950 and 0.9965, respectively, which could prove that the proposed reconstruction algorithm would effectively distinguish multiple radioactive nuclides and accurately restore their radioactivity distribution. Finally, the influences of statistical fluctuation levels and the number of energy windows on the deconvolution results were analyzed, showing that the lower the statistical fluctuation level and the more energy window divisions, the better the deconvolution results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Xianyun Ai
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Ying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Wenzhuo Chen
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Zikun Li
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
- Nuclear Technology Key Laboratory of Earth Science in Sichuan, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China
| | - Xian Guan
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Xing Wei
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Jianming Xie
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
| | - Ye Chen
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China
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4
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Simerl N, Beavers J, Bahadori AA, McNeil W. Aerial and Collimated Sensor Radiological Mapping Following Dispersal of Activated Potassium Bromide. HEALTH PHYSICS 2022; 123:267-277. [PMID: 36049133 DOI: 10.1097/hp.0000000000001591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The exposure rate distribution was quantified over a site of three activated potassium bromide radiological dispersal device detonations at the Idaho National Laboratory Radiological Response Training Range with unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and ground-based methods. Discussions on the methods' survey characteristics, such as survey time, data spatial resolution, and area coverage, serve to inform those concerned with radiological response and cleanup efforts. Raster scans over the site at 4 m s-1 with 6 m between passes at an altitude of 4 m above ground level were executed with a 2.54 cm × 2.54 cm × 7.62 cm cesium iodide, sodium-doped [CsI(Na)] sensor mounted to a UAV. Exposure rates were calculated from the spectra obtained by the CsI(Na) using a flux unfolding method. Data obtained from the UAV raster were interpolated to produce a continuous exposure rate map across the site. The activity on the ground, inferred from collimated, ground-based sensor (Nomad) measurements in previous work, was used to calculate exposure rate distributions at the same altitude as the UAV-mounted CsI(Na) sensor. Agreement between Nomad and UAV exposure rate distributions is observed at rates up to 1.0 mR h-1 after corrections for ground effects were implemented on the Nomad data. Discrepancies in exposure rate contours are present at higher rates, directly above the detonation locations. In areas of high exposure rate gradients, it is anticipated that a faster UAV-mounted sensor and more refined scans by the UAV will improve characterization of the distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathanael Simerl
- Alan Levin Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Kansas State University, 3002 Rathbone Hall, 1701B Platt Street, Manhattan, KS 66506
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5
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Cho C, Kwon K, Wu C. On Weather Data-Based Prediction of Gamma Exposure Rates Using Gradient Boosting Learning for Environmental Radiation Monitoring. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:7062. [PMID: 36146409 PMCID: PMC9501500 DOI: 10.3390/s22187062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Gamma radiation has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a carcinogenic agent with sufficient evidence in humans. Previous studies show that some weather data are cross-correlated with gamma exposure rates; hence, we hypothesize that the gamma exposure rate could be predicted with certain weather data. In this study, we collected various weather and radiation data from an automatic weather system (AWS) and environmental radiation monitoring system (ERMS) during a specific period and trained and tested two time-series learning algorithms-namely, long short-term memory (LSTM) and light gradient boosting machine (LightGBM)-with two preprocessing methods, namely, standardization and normalization. The experimental results illustrate that standardization is superior to normalization for data preprocessing with smaller deviations, and LightGBM outperforms LSTM in terms of prediction accuracy and running time. The prediction capability of LightGBM makes it possible to determine whether the increase in the gamma exposure rate is caused by a change in the weather or an actual gamma ray for environmental radiation monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changhyun Cho
- Division of Electronic, Information and Communication Engineering, Kangwon National University, Samcheok 25913, Kangwondo, Korea
| | - Kihyeon Kwon
- Division of Electronic, Information and Communication Engineering, Kangwon National University, Samcheok 25913, Kangwondo, Korea
| | - Chase Wu
- Department of Data Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
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6
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Liang E, Zheng KQ, Yao K, Lo W, Hasson H, Zhang A, Burns M, Wong WH, Zhang Y, Dashko A, Quevedo H, Ditmire T, Dyer G. A scintillator attenuation spectrometer for intense gamma-rays. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2022; 93:063103. [PMID: 35777994 DOI: 10.1063/5.0082131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
A new type of compact high-resolution high-sensitivity gamma-ray spectrometer for short-pulse intense gamma-rays (250 keV to 50 MeV) has been developed by combining the principles of scintillators and attenuation spectrometers. The first prototype of this scintillator attenuation spectrometer (SAS) was tested successfully in Trident laser experiments at LANL. Later versions have been used extensively in the Texas Petawatt laser experiments in Austin, TX, and more recently in OMEGA-EP laser experiments at LLE, Rochester, NY. The SAS is particularly useful for high-repetition-rate laser applications. Here, we give a concise description of the design principles, capabilities, and sample preliminary results of the SAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Liang
- Physics and Astronomy Department, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - K Q Zheng
- Physics and Astronomy Department, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - K Yao
- Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
| | - W Lo
- Physics and Astronomy Department, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - H Hasson
- Physics Department, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14627, USA
| | - A Zhang
- Division of Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, USA
| | - M Burns
- Physics and Astronomy Department, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - W H Wong
- M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Diagnostic Imaging Division, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - Y Zhang
- M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Diagnostic Imaging Division, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - A Dashko
- High Energy Density Science Center, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - H Quevedo
- High Energy Density Science Center, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - T Ditmire
- High Energy Density Science Center, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
| | - G Dyer
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Linac Coherent Light Source, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
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7
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Future Prospects of Positron Emission Tomography–Magnetic Resonance Imaging Hybrid Systems and Applications in Psychiatric Disorders. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15050583. [PMID: 35631409 PMCID: PMC9147426 DOI: 10.3390/ph15050583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A positron emission tomography (PET)–magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) hybrid system has been developed to improve the accuracy of molecular imaging with structural imaging. However, the mismatch in spatial resolution between the two systems hinders the use of the hybrid system. As the magnetic field of the MRI increased up to 7.0 tesla in the commercial system, the performance of the MRI system largely improved. Several technical attempts in terms of the detector and the software used with the PET were made to improve the performance. As a result, the high resolution of the PET–MRI fusion system enables quantitation of metabolism and molecular information in the small substructures of the brainstem, hippocampus, and thalamus. Many studies on psychiatric disorders, which are difficult to diagnose with medical imaging, have been accomplished using various radioligands, but only a few studies have been conducted using the PET–MRI fusion system. To increase the clinical usefulness of medical imaging in psychiatric disorders, a high-resolution PET–MRI fusion system can play a key role by providing important information on both molecular and structural aspects in the fine structures of the brain. The development of high-resolution PET–MR systems and their potential roles in clinical studies of psychiatric disorders were reviewed as prospective views in future diagnostics.
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8
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Handheld Magnetic-Compliant Gamma-Ray Spectrometer for Environmental Monitoring and Scrap Metal Screening. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22041412. [PMID: 35214315 PMCID: PMC8963090 DOI: 10.3390/s22041412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Spotting radioactive material in waste is of paramount importance for environment protection. This is particularly challenging when orphan sources are hidden in scrap metal that shields their activity from the traditional detectors in the portals scanning incoming trucks. In order to address this issue, we present a wireless and compact SiPM-based gamma spectrometer compatible with strong magnetic fields (0.1 T) to be installed in the bore of the lifting electromagnets to scan reduced volumes of metal and thus achieve higher sensitivity. The microcontroller-based instrument provides 11% energy resolution (at 662 keV), an energy range from 60 keV to 1.5 MeV, a max. count rate of 30 kcps, a weight <1 kg, and a power consumption <1 W. The results of its extensive characterization in the laboratory and its validation in the field, including operation in a scrap yard as well as on a drone, are reported.
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9
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Lu L, Sun M, Wu T, Lu Q, Chen B, Huang B. All-inorganic perovskite nanocrystals: next-generation scintillation materials for high-resolution X-ray imaging. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2022; 4:680-696. [PMID: 36131822 PMCID: PMC9417099 DOI: 10.1039/d1na00815c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
With super strong penetrability, high-energy X-rays can be applied to probe the inner structure of target objects under nondestructive situations. Scintillation materials can down-convert X-rays into visible light, enabling the reception of photon signals and photoelectric conversion by common sensing arrays such as photomultiplier tubes and amorphous-Si photodiode matrixes. All-inorganic perovskite nanocrystals are emerging photovoltaic and scintillation materials, with tremendous light-conversion efficiency and tunable luminous properties, exhibiting great potential for high-quality X-ray imaging. Recent advancements in nanotechnology further accelerate the performance improvement of scintillation materials. In this review, we will provide a comprehensive overview of novel all-inorganic perovskite nano-scintillators in terms of potential applications in low-dose X-ray medical radiography. Compared with conventional scintillators, the merits/drawbacks, challenges, and scintillation performance control will be the focus of this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Lu
- Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hung Hom Kowloon Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Mingzi Sun
- Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hung Hom Kowloon Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Tong Wu
- Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hung Hom Kowloon Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Qiuyang Lu
- Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hung Hom Kowloon Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Baian Chen
- Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hung Hom Kowloon Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Bolong Huang
- Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hung Hom Kowloon Hong Kong SAR China
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10
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Lin Z, Lv S, Yang Z, Qiu J, Zhou S. Structured Scintillators for Efficient Radiation Detection. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2102439. [PMID: 34761546 PMCID: PMC8805559 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202102439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Scintillators, which can convert high-energy ionizing radiation into visible light, have been serving as the core component in radiation detectors for more than a century of history. To address the increasing application demands along with the concern on nuclear security, various strategies have been proposed to develop a next-generation scintillator with a high performance in past decades, among which the novel approach via structure control has received great interest recently due to its high feasibility and efficiency. Herein, the concept of "structure engineering" is proposed for the exploration of this type of scintillators. Via internal or external structure design with size ranging from micro size to macro size, this promising strategy cannot only improve scintillator performance, typically radiation stopping power and light yield, but also extend its functionality for specific applications such as radiation imaging and therapy, opening up a new range of material candidates. The research and development of various types of structured scintillators are reviewed. The current state-of-the-art progresses on structure design, fabrication techniques, and the corresponding applications are discussed. Furthermore, an outlook focusing on the current challenges and future development is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyu Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and DevicesSchool of Materials Science and EngineeringSouth China University of TechnologyGuangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Laser Materials and Applied TechniquesGuangdong Engineering Technology Research and Development Center of Special Optical Fiber Materials and DevicesGuangzhou510640China
| | - Shichao Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and DevicesSchool of Materials Science and EngineeringSouth China University of TechnologyGuangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Laser Materials and Applied TechniquesGuangdong Engineering Technology Research and Development Center of Special Optical Fiber Materials and DevicesGuangzhou510640China
| | - Zhongmin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and DevicesSchool of Materials Science and EngineeringSouth China University of TechnologyGuangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Laser Materials and Applied TechniquesGuangdong Engineering Technology Research and Development Center of Special Optical Fiber Materials and DevicesGuangzhou510640China
| | - Jianrong Qiu
- College of Optical Science and EngineeringZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Shifeng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Luminescent Materials and DevicesSchool of Materials Science and EngineeringSouth China University of TechnologyGuangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Fiber Laser Materials and Applied TechniquesGuangdong Engineering Technology Research and Development Center of Special Optical Fiber Materials and DevicesGuangzhou510640China
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11
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Fast Energy Dependent Scatter Correction for List-Mode PET Data. J Imaging 2021; 7:jimaging7100199. [PMID: 34677285 PMCID: PMC8541469 DOI: 10.3390/jimaging7100199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Improvements in energy resolution of modern positron emission tomography (PET) detectors have created opportunities to implement energy-based scatter correction algorithms. Here, we use the energy information of auxiliary windows to estimate the scatter component. Our method is directly implemented in an iterative reconstruction algorithm, generating a scatter-corrected image without the need for sinograms. The purpose was to implement a fast energy-based scatter correction method on list-mode PET data, when it was not possible to use an attenuation map as a practical approach for the scatter degradation. The proposed method was evaluated using Monte Carlo simulations of various digital phantoms. It accurately estimated the scatter fraction distribution, and improved the image contrast in the simulated studied cases. We conclude that the proposed scatter correction method could effectively correct the scattered events, including multiple scatters and those originated in sources outside the field of view.
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Ye M, Gong P, Wu S, Li Y, Zhou C, Zhu X, Tang X. Lightweight SiPM-based CeBr 3 gamma-ray spectrometer for radiation-monitoring systems of small unmanned aerial vehicles. Appl Radiat Isot 2021; 176:109848. [PMID: 34237552 DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2021.109848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The radiation-monitoring systems of miniaturized unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have wide-ranging applications. However, the load capacity and flight time of radiation-monitoring systems of UAVs are limited. Thus, a lightweight and low-power radiation monitoring load is significant to develop. Herein, a lightweight CeBr3 gamma-ray spectrometer based on Silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) was developed for small-UAV radiation-monitoring systems. Experiments were conducted to test the performance of the spectrometer. Excellent linearity and high energy resolution were achieved. Compared with the traditional CeBr3 scintillator gamma-ray spectrometer, the volume, mass, and power consumption of the spectrometer decreased by 73%, 55%, and 38%, respectively. Carrying the spectrometer developed in this paper can increase the compactness and flight time of small-UAV radiation-monitoring systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maheng Ye
- Department of Nuclear Science and Technology, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Pin Gong
- Department of Nuclear Science and Technology, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China; Key Laboratory of Nuclear Technology Application and Radiation Protection in Astronautics, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Nanjing, 210016, China.
| | - Sunci Wu
- Department of Nuclear Science and Technology, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Nuclear Science and Technology, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Cheng Zhou
- Jiangsu Nuclear and Radiation Safety Supervision and Management Center, Nanjing, 210019, China
| | - Xiaoxiang Zhu
- Jiangsu Nuclear and Radiation Safety Supervision and Management Center, Nanjing, 210019, China
| | - Xiaobin Tang
- Department of Nuclear Science and Technology, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China; Key Laboratory of Nuclear Technology Application and Radiation Protection in Astronautics, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Nanjing, 210016, China
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13
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Min S, Seo B, Roh C, Hong S, Cheong J. Phoswich Detectors in Sensing Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:4047. [PMID: 34208411 PMCID: PMC8231195 DOI: 10.3390/s21124047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we review studies of the integration of Phoswich detectors with readout integrated circuits and the associated performance in a radiological sensing application. The basic concept and knowledge of interactions with scintillation materials and the mechanisms and characteristics of radiological detection are extensively discussed. Additionally, we summarize integrated multiple detection systems and Phoswich detectors in radiological measurements for their device performance. Moreover, we further exhibit recent progress and perspective in the future of Phoswich-based radiological detection and measurement. Finally, we provide perspectives to evaluate the detector performance for radiological detection and measurement. We expect this review can pave the way to understanding the recent status and future challenges for Phoswich detectors for radiological detection and measurement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujung Min
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, Kyung-Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Korea;
- Decommissioning Technology Research Division, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon 34057, Korea;
| | - Bumkyung Seo
- Decommissioning Technology Research Division, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon 34057, Korea;
| | - Changhyun Roh
- Decommissioning Technology Research Division, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon 34057, Korea;
- Quantum Energy Chemical Engineering, University of Science and Technology (UST), 217 Gajeong-ro, Daejeon 34113, Korea
| | - Sangbum Hong
- Decommissioning Technology Research Division, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon 34057, Korea;
| | - JaeHak Cheong
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, Kyung-Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Korea;
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14
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Zhang X, Xie Q, Xie S, Yu X, Xu J, Peng Q. A Novel Portable Gamma Radiation Sensor Based on a Monolithic Lutetium-Yttrium Oxyorthosilicate Ring. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21103376. [PMID: 34066224 PMCID: PMC8150370 DOI: 10.3390/s21103376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Portable radiation detectors are widely used in environmental radiation detection and medical imaging due to their portability feature, high detection efficiency, and large field of view. Lutetium-yttrium oxyorthosilicate (LYSO) is a widely used scintillator in gamma radiation detection. However, the structure and the arrangement of scintillators limit the sensitivity and detection accuracy of these radiation detectors. In this study, a novel portable sensor based on a monolithic LYSO ring was developed for the detection of environmental radiation through simulation, followed by construction and assessments. Monte Carlo simulations were utilized to prove the detection of gamma rays at 511 keV by the developed sensor. The simulations data, including energy resolutions, decoding errors, and sensitivity, showed good potential for the detection of gamma rays by the as-obtained sensor. The experimental results using the VA method revealed decoding errors in the energy window width of 50 keV less than 2°. The average error was estimated at 0.67°, a sufficient value for the detection of gamma radiation. In sum, the proposed radiation sensor appears promising for the construction of high-performance radiation detectors and systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Zhang
- The School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China; (X.Z.); (Q.X.); (X.Y.)
| | - Qiangqiang Xie
- The School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China; (X.Z.); (Q.X.); (X.Y.)
| | - Siwei Xie
- Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, The Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen 518132, China; (S.X.); (Q.P.)
| | - Xin Yu
- The School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China; (X.Z.); (Q.X.); (X.Y.)
| | - Jianfeng Xu
- The School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China; (X.Z.); (Q.X.); (X.Y.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Qiyu Peng
- Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, The Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen 518132, China; (S.X.); (Q.P.)
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15
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Grigore LȘ, Gorgoteanu D, Molder C, Alexa O, Oncioiu I, Ștefan A, Constantin D, Lupoae M, Bălașa RI. A Dynamic Motion Analysis of a Six-Wheel Ground Vehicle for Emergency Intervention Actions. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21051618. [PMID: 33669001 PMCID: PMC7956183 DOI: 10.3390/s21051618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To protect the personnel of the intervention units operating in high-risk areas, it is necessary to introduce (autonomous/semi-autonomous) robotic intervention systems. Previous studies have shown that robotic intervention systems should be as versatile as possible. Here, we focused on the idea of a robotic system composed of two vectors: a carrier vector and an operational vector. The proposed system particularly relates to the carrier vector. A simple analytical model was developed to enable the entire robotic assembly to be autonomous. To validate the analytical-numerical model regarding the kinematics and dynamics of the carrier vector, two of the following applications are presented: intervention for extinguishing a fire and performing measurements for monitoring gamma radiation in a public enclosure. The results show that the chosen carrier vector solution, i.e., the ground vehicle with six-wheel drive, satisfies the requirements related to the mobility of the robotic intervention system. In addition, the conclusions present the elements of the kinematics and dynamics of the robot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucian Ștefăniță Grigore
- Military Technical Academy, “FERDINAND I”, 39–49 George Coșbuc Av., 050141 Bucharest, Romania; (L.Ș.G.); (D.G.); (C.M.); (O.A.); (A.Ș.); (D.C.); (M.L.); (R.-I.B.)
| | - Damian Gorgoteanu
- Military Technical Academy, “FERDINAND I”, 39–49 George Coșbuc Av., 050141 Bucharest, Romania; (L.Ș.G.); (D.G.); (C.M.); (O.A.); (A.Ș.); (D.C.); (M.L.); (R.-I.B.)
| | - Cristian Molder
- Military Technical Academy, “FERDINAND I”, 39–49 George Coșbuc Av., 050141 Bucharest, Romania; (L.Ș.G.); (D.G.); (C.M.); (O.A.); (A.Ș.); (D.C.); (M.L.); (R.-I.B.)
| | - Octavian Alexa
- Military Technical Academy, “FERDINAND I”, 39–49 George Coșbuc Av., 050141 Bucharest, Romania; (L.Ș.G.); (D.G.); (C.M.); (O.A.); (A.Ș.); (D.C.); (M.L.); (R.-I.B.)
| | - Ionica Oncioiu
- Faculty of Finance-Banking, Accountancy and Business Administration, Titu Maiorescu University, 040051 Bucharest, Romania
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +40-372-710-962
| | - Amado Ștefan
- Military Technical Academy, “FERDINAND I”, 39–49 George Coșbuc Av., 050141 Bucharest, Romania; (L.Ș.G.); (D.G.); (C.M.); (O.A.); (A.Ș.); (D.C.); (M.L.); (R.-I.B.)
| | - Daniel Constantin
- Military Technical Academy, “FERDINAND I”, 39–49 George Coșbuc Av., 050141 Bucharest, Romania; (L.Ș.G.); (D.G.); (C.M.); (O.A.); (A.Ș.); (D.C.); (M.L.); (R.-I.B.)
| | - Marin Lupoae
- Military Technical Academy, “FERDINAND I”, 39–49 George Coșbuc Av., 050141 Bucharest, Romania; (L.Ș.G.); (D.G.); (C.M.); (O.A.); (A.Ș.); (D.C.); (M.L.); (R.-I.B.)
| | - Răzvan-Ionuț Bălașa
- Military Technical Academy, “FERDINAND I”, 39–49 George Coșbuc Av., 050141 Bucharest, Romania; (L.Ș.G.); (D.G.); (C.M.); (O.A.); (A.Ș.); (D.C.); (M.L.); (R.-I.B.)
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16
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Marques L, Vale A, Vaz P. State-of-the-Art Mobile Radiation Detection Systems for Different Scenarios. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21041051. [PMID: 33557104 PMCID: PMC7913838 DOI: 10.3390/s21041051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade, the development of more compact and lightweight radiation detection systems led to their application in handheld and small unmanned systems, particularly air-based platforms. Examples of improvements are: the use of silicon photomultiplier-based scintillators, new scintillating crystals, compact dual-mode detectors (gamma/neutron), data fusion, mobile sensor networks, cooperative detection and search. Gamma cameras and dual-particle cameras are increasingly being used for source location. This study reviews and discusses the research advancements in the field of gamma-ray and neutron measurements using mobile radiation detection systems since the Fukushima nuclear accident. Four scenarios are considered: radiological and nuclear accidents and emergencies; illicit traffic of special nuclear materials and radioactive materials; nuclear, accelerator, targets, and irradiation facilities; and naturally occurring radioactive materials monitoring-related activities. The work presented in this paper aims to: compile and review information on the radiation detection systems, contextual sensors and platforms used for each scenario; assess their advantages and limitations, looking prospectively to new research and challenges in the field; and support the decision making of national radioprotection agencies and response teams in respect to adequate detection system for each scenario. For that, an extensive literature review was conducted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís Marques
- Centro de Investigação da Academia da Força Aérea, Academia da Força Aérea, Instituto Universitário Militar, Granja do Marquês, 2715-021 Pêro Pinheiro, Portugal
- Correspondence:
| | - Alberto Vale
- Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Pedro Vaz
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10 (km 139.7), 2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal;
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17
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Connor DT, Wood K, Martin PG, Goren S, Megson-Smith D, Verbelen Y, Chyzhevskyi I, Kirieiev S, Smith NT, Richardson T, Scott TB. Radiological Mapping of Post-Disaster Nuclear Environments Using Fixed-Wing Unmanned Aerial Systems: A Study From Chornobyl. Front Robot AI 2021; 6:149. [PMID: 33501164 PMCID: PMC7805860 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2019.00149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In the immediate aftermath following a large-scale release of radioactive material into the environment, it is necessary to determine the spatial distribution of radioactivity quickly. At present, this is conducted by utilizing manned aircraft equipped with large-volume radiation detection systems. Whilst these are capable of mapping large areas quickly, they suffer from a low spatial resolution due to the operating altitude of the aircraft. They are also expensive to deploy and their manned nature means that the operators are still at risk of exposure to potentially harmful ionizing radiation. Previous studies have identified the feasibility of utilizing unmanned aerial systems (UASs) in monitoring radiation in post-disaster environments. However, the majority of these systems suffer from a limited range or are too heavy to be easily integrated into regulatory restrictions that exist on the deployment of UASs worldwide. This study presents a new radiation mapping UAS based on a lightweight (8 kg) fixed-wing unmanned aircraft and tests its suitability to mapping post-disaster radiation in the Chornobyl Exclusion Zone (CEZ). The system is capable of continuous flight for more than 1 h and can resolve small scale changes in dose-rate in high resolution (sub-20 m). It is envisaged that with some minor development, these systems could be utilized to map large areas of hazardous land without exposing a single operator to a harmful dose of ionizing radiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dean T Connor
- Interface Analysis Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Kieran Wood
- Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Peter G Martin
- South West Nuclear Hub, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Sevda Goren
- South West Nuclear Hub, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - David Megson-Smith
- Interface Analysis Centre, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Yannick Verbelen
- South West Nuclear Hub, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Nick T Smith
- National Nuclear Laboratory, Workington, United Kingdom
| | - Tom Richardson
- Aerospace Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas B Scott
- South West Nuclear Hub, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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18
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Martin PG, Verbelen Y, Sciama Bandel E, Andrews M, Scott TB. Project Gatekeeper: An Entrance Control System Embedded Radiation Detection Capability for Security Applications. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20102957. [PMID: 32456140 PMCID: PMC7285256 DOI: 10.3390/s20102957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Threat assessments continue to conclude that terrorist groups and individuals as well as those wanting to cause harm to society have the ambition and increasing means to acquire unconventional weapons such as improvised nuclear explosive devices and radiological disposal devices. Such assessments are given credence by public statements of intent by such groups/persons, by reports of attempts to acquire radioactive material and by law enforcement actions which have interdicted, apprehended or prevented attempts to acquire such material. As a mechanism through which to identify radioactive materials being transported on an individual’s person, this work sought to develop a detection system that is of lower-cost, reduced form-factor and more covert than existing infrastructure, while maintaining adequate sensitivity and being retrofittable into an industry standard and widely utilised Gunnebo Speed Gate system. The system developed comprised an array of six off-set Geiger–Muller detectors positioned around the gate, alongside a single scintillator detector for spectroscopy, triggered by the systems inbuilt existing IR proximity sensor. This configuration served to not only reduce the cost for such a system but also allowed for source localisation and identification to be performed. Utilising the current setup, it was possible to detect a 1 µSv/h source carried into the Speed Gate in all test scenarios, alongside locating and spectrally analysing the material in a significant number.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter G. Martin
- Interface Analysis Centre, School of Physics, HH Wills Physics Laboratory, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TL, UK; (Y.V.); (T.B.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-(0)-117-42-82541
| | - Yannick Verbelen
- Interface Analysis Centre, School of Physics, HH Wills Physics Laboratory, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TL, UK; (Y.V.); (T.B.S.)
| | - Elia Sciama Bandel
- School of Physics, HH Wills Physics Laboratory, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TL, UK;
| | - Mark Andrews
- Gunnebo UK Ltd., Fairfax House, Pendeford Business Park, Wolverhampton WV9 5HA, UK;
| | - Thomas B. Scott
- Interface Analysis Centre, School of Physics, HH Wills Physics Laboratory, University of Bristol, Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TL, UK; (Y.V.); (T.B.S.)
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19
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Borbinha J, Romanets Y, Teles P, Corisco J, Vaz P, Carvalho D, Brouwer Y, Luís R, Pinto L, Vale A, Ventura R, Areias B, Reis AB, Gonçalves B. Performance Analysis of Geiger-Müller and Cadmium Zinc Telluride Sensors Envisaging Airborne Radiological Monitoring in NORM Sites. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20051538. [PMID: 32164377 PMCID: PMC7085614 DOI: 10.3390/s20051538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Radiological monitoring is fundamental for compliance with radiological protection policies in the aftermath of radiological events, such as nuclear accidents, terrorism, and out-of-commission uranium mines. An effective strategy for radiation monitoring is to use radiation detectors coupled with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), enabling for quicker surveillance of large areas without involving the need of human presence in the target area. The main aim of this study was to formulate the parameters for a UAV flight strategy in preparation for future field measurements using Geiger-Muller Counters (GMC) and Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CZT) spectrometers. As a proof of concept, the prepared flight strategy will be used to survey out-of-commission uranium mines in northern Portugal. Procedures to assure the calibration of the CZT and verification of the GMCs were conducted, as well as a sensitivity analysis of the sensors considering different acquisition times, distance to source, and detector response time. This article reports specific parameters, such as UAV distance to ground, time of exposition, speed, and the methodology to perform the identification and calculate the activity of possible radioactive sources. An effective flight strategy is also presented, aiming to use radiation detectors coupled with UAVs to undertake extensive monitoring of areas with enhanced levels of environmental radiation, which is of prime importance due to the lasting hazardous effects of enhanced environmental radiation in the nearby ecosystem and population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Borbinha
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10, ao km 139,7. 2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal; (Y.R.); (P.T.); (J.C.); (P.V.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Yuriy Romanets
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10, ao km 139,7. 2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal; (Y.R.); (P.T.); (J.C.); (P.V.)
| | - Pedro Teles
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10, ao km 139,7. 2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal; (Y.R.); (P.T.); (J.C.); (P.V.)
| | - José Corisco
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10, ao km 139,7. 2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal; (Y.R.); (P.T.); (J.C.); (P.V.)
| | - Pedro Vaz
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10, ao km 139,7. 2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal; (Y.R.); (P.T.); (J.C.); (P.V.)
| | - Diogo Carvalho
- Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (D.C.); (Y.B.); (R.L.); (L.P.); (A.V.); (B.G.)
| | - Yoeri Brouwer
- Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (D.C.); (Y.B.); (R.L.); (L.P.); (A.V.); (B.G.)
| | - Raul Luís
- Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (D.C.); (Y.B.); (R.L.); (L.P.); (A.V.); (B.G.)
| | - Luís Pinto
- Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (D.C.); (Y.B.); (R.L.); (L.P.); (A.V.); (B.G.)
| | - Alberto Vale
- Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (D.C.); (Y.B.); (R.L.); (L.P.); (A.V.); (B.G.)
| | - Rodrigo Ventura
- Institute for Systems and Robotics, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Bruno Areias
- Instituto de Telecomunicações, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (B.A.); (A.B.R.)
| | - Andre B. Reis
- Instituto de Telecomunicações, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; (B.A.); (A.B.R.)
| | - Bruno Gonçalves
- Instituto de Plasmas e Fusão Nuclear, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (D.C.); (Y.B.); (R.L.); (L.P.); (A.V.); (B.G.)
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