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Luo H, Li J, Lv H, Xie J, Wang C, Lin H, Zhuang R, Zhu W, Zhong Y, Kan R, Yu J, Zheng H. Off-plane quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy. OPTICS LETTERS 2024; 49:3206-3209. [PMID: 38824364 DOI: 10.1364/ol.506650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
In this work, we developed off-plane quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (OP-QEPAS). In the OP-QEPAS the light beam went neither through the prong spacing of the quartz tuning fork (QTF) nor in the QTF plane. The light beam is in parallel with the QTF with an optimal distance, resulting in low background noise. A radial-cavity (RC) resonator was coupled with the QTF to enhance the photoacoustic signal by the radial resonance mode. By offsetting both the QTF and the laser position from the central axis, we enhance the effect of the acoustic radial resonance and prevent the noise generated by direct laser irradiation of the QTF. Compared to IP-QEPAS based on a bare QTF, the developed OP-QEPAS with a RC resonator showed a >10× signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) enhancement. The OP-QEPAS system has great advantages in the use of light emitting devices (LEDs), long-wavelength laser sources such as mid-infrared quantum cascade lasers, and terahertz sources. When employing a LED as the excitation source, the noise level was suppressed by ∼2 orders of magnitude. Furthermore, the radial and longitudinal resonance modes can be combined to further improve the sensor performance.
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Patimisco P, Ardito N, De Toma E, Burghart D, Tigaev V, Belkin MA, Spagnolo V. Quartz-Enhanced Photoacoustic Sensor Based on a Multi-Laser Source for In-Sequence Detection of NO 2, SO 2, and NH 3. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:9005. [PMID: 37960706 PMCID: PMC10649992 DOI: 10.3390/s23219005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we report on the implementation of a multi-quantum cascade laser (QCL) module as an innovative light source for quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS) sensing. The source is composed of three different QCLs coupled with a dichroitic beam combiner module that provides an overlapping collimated beam output for all three QCLs. The 3λ-QCL QEPAS sensor was tested for detection of NO2, SO2, and NH3 in sequence in a laboratory environment. Sensitivities of 19.99 mV/ppm, 19.39 mV/ppm, and 73.99 mV/ppm were reached for NO2, SO2, and NH3 gas detection, respectively, with ultimate detection limits of 9 ppb, 9.3 ppb, and 2.4 ppb for these three gases, respectively, at an integration time of 100 ms. The detection limits were well below the values of typical natural abundance of NO2, SO2, and NH3 in air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Patimisco
- PolySense Lab-Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, Politecnico and University of Bari, Via Amendola 173, I-70100 Bari, Italy;
- Polysense Innovations Srl 2, Via Amendola 173, I-70100 Bari, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Ardito
- PolySense Lab-Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, Politecnico and University of Bari, Via Amendola 173, I-70100 Bari, Italy;
| | - Edoardo De Toma
- Walter Schottky Institute, Technical University of Munich, Am Coulombwall 4, D-85748 Garching, Germany; (E.D.T.); (D.B.); (V.T.); (M.A.B.)
| | - Dominik Burghart
- Walter Schottky Institute, Technical University of Munich, Am Coulombwall 4, D-85748 Garching, Germany; (E.D.T.); (D.B.); (V.T.); (M.A.B.)
| | - Vladislav Tigaev
- Walter Schottky Institute, Technical University of Munich, Am Coulombwall 4, D-85748 Garching, Germany; (E.D.T.); (D.B.); (V.T.); (M.A.B.)
| | - Mikhail A. Belkin
- Walter Schottky Institute, Technical University of Munich, Am Coulombwall 4, D-85748 Garching, Germany; (E.D.T.); (D.B.); (V.T.); (M.A.B.)
| | - Vincenzo Spagnolo
- PolySense Lab-Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, Politecnico and University of Bari, Via Amendola 173, I-70100 Bari, Italy;
- Polysense Innovations Srl 2, Via Amendola 173, I-70100 Bari, Italy
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Liu X, Wu H, Dong L. Methodology and applications of acousto-electric analogy in photoacoustic cell design for trace gas analysis. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2023; 30:100475. [PMID: 37007859 PMCID: PMC10064240 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2023.100475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Photoacoustic cells play an important role in photoacoustic trace gas analysis, as they can amplify the photoacoustic signal and improve detection limit. Therefore, the structure and dimensional design of a photoacoustic cell are very important for the performance of a photoacoustic sensing system. In this review, the theory and the method of acousto-electric analogy for the photoacoustic cell design are discussed in detail. Starting from the basics of the acousto-electric analogy, the counterparts of acoustic elements in electric circuits are first deduced from the analogies between acoustic and electric networks. Subsequently, an acoustic transmission line model is reviewed, and the model is demonstrated to optimize the geometry of the photoacoustic cell and investigate the properties of the cell. Finally, using the acousto-electric analogy method, the equivalent electric circuits of several types of photoacoustic cells, such as the Helmholtz resonant photoacoustic cell, the H-type resonant photoacoustic cell, the differential photoacoustic cell, etc., are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, PR China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, PR China
| | - Hongpeng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, PR China
| | - Lei Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, PR China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, PR China
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Olivieri M, Menduni G, Giglio M, Sampaolo A, Patimisco P, Wu H, Dong L, Spagnolo V. Characterization of H 2S QEPAS detection in methane-based gas leaks dispersed into environment. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2023; 29:100438. [PMID: 36582842 PMCID: PMC9792567 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2022.100438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 11/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The increase in fatal accidents and chronic illnesses caused by hydrogen sulfide (H2S) exposure occurring in various workplaces is pushing the development of sensing systems for continuous and in-field monitoring of this hazardous gas. We report here on the design and realization of a Near-IR quartz-enhanced photoacoustic sensor (QEPAS) for H2S leaks detection. H2S QEPAS signal was measured in matrixes containing up to 1 % of methane (CH4) and nitrogen (N2) which were chosen as the laboratory model environment for leakages from oil and gas wells or various industrial processes where H2S and CH4 can leak simultaneously. An investigation of the influence of CH4 on H2S relaxation and photoacoustic generation was proposed in this work and the sensor performances were carefully assessed with respect to CH4 content in the mixture. We demonstrated the high selectivity, with no cross talk between H2S, H2O and CH4 absorption lines, high sensitivity, and fast response time of the developed sensor, achieving a minimum detection limit (MDL) of 2.5 ppm for H2S with 2 s lock-in integration time. The employed 2.6 µm laser allowed us to employ the sensor also for CH4 detection, achieving an MDL of 85 ppm. The realized QEPAS sensor lends itself to the development of a portable and compact device for industrial monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariagrazia Olivieri
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, Politecnico and University of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
| | - Giansergio Menduni
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, Politecnico and University of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
| | - Marilena Giglio
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, Politecnico and University of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
| | - Angelo Sampaolo
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, Politecnico and University of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
| | - Pietro Patimisco
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, Politecnico and University of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
| | - Hongpeng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Lei Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Vincenzo Spagnolo
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, Politecnico and University of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
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Lu C, Dashtabi MM, Nikbakht H, Khoshmehr MT, Akca BI. Sub-Nanometer Acoustic Vibration Sensing Using a Tapered-Tip Optical Fiber Microcantilever. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:924. [PMID: 36679720 PMCID: PMC9861400 DOI: 10.3390/s23020924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate a highly sensitive acoustic vibration sensor based on a tapered-tip optical fiber acting as a microcantilever. The tapered-tip fiber has a unique output profile that exhibits a circular fringe pattern, whose distribution is highly sensitive to the vibration of the fiber tip. A piezo transducer is used for the acoustic excitation of the fiber microcantilever, which results in a periodic bending of the tip and thereby a significant output power modulation. Using a multimode readout fiber connected to an electric spectrum analyzer, we measured the amplitude of these power modulations over the 10-50 kHz range and observed resonances over certain frequency ranges. Two types of tapered-tip fibers were fabricated with diameter values of 1.5 µm and 1.8 µm and their frequency responses were compared with a non-tapered fiber tip. Thanks to the resonance effect as well as the sensitive fringe pattern of the tapered-tip fibers, the limit of detection and the sensitivity of the fiber sensor were obtained as 0.1 nm and 15.7 V/nm, respectively, which were significantly better than the values obtained with the non-tapered fiber tip (i.e., 1.1 nm and 0.12 V/nm, respectively). The sensor is highly sensitive, easy to fabricate, low-cost, and can detect sub-nanometer displacements, which makes it a promising tool for vibration sensing, particularly in the photoacoustic sensing of greenhouse gases.
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Menduni G, Zifarelli A, Sampaolo A, Patimisco P, Giglio M, Amoroso N, Wu H, Dong L, Bellotti R, Spagnolo V. High-concentration methane and ethane QEPAS detection employing partial least squares regression to filter out energy relaxation dependence on gas matrix composition. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2022; 26:100349. [PMID: 35345809 PMCID: PMC8956809 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2022.100349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
A quartz enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS) sensor capable to detect high concentrations of methane (C1) and ethane (C2) is here reported. The hydrocarbons fingerprint region around 3 µm was exploited using an interband cascade laser (ICL). A standard quartz tuning fork (QTF) coupled with two resonator tubes was used to detect the photoacoustic signal generated by the target molecules. Employing dedicated electronic boards to both control the laser source and collect the QTF signal, a shoe-box sized QEPAS sensor was realized. All the generated mixtures were downstream humidified to remove the influence of water vapor on the target gases. Several natural gas-like samples were generated and subsequently diluted 1:10 in N2. In the concentration ranges under investigation (1%-10% for C1 and 0.1%-1% for C2), both linear and nonlinear responses of the sensor were measured and signal variations due to matrix effects were observed. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) was employed as a multivariate statistical tool to accurately determine the concentrations of C1 and C2 in the mixtures, compensating the matrix relaxation effects. The achieved results extend the range of C1 and C2 concentrations detectable by QEPAS technique up to the percent scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giansergio Menduni
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica M. Merlin, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro e Politecnico di Bari, Via G. Amendola 173, Bari, 70125, Italy
| | - Andrea Zifarelli
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica M. Merlin, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro e Politecnico di Bari, Via G. Amendola 173, Bari, 70125, Italy
| | - Angelo Sampaolo
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica M. Merlin, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro e Politecnico di Bari, Via G. Amendola 173, Bari, 70125, Italy
- PolySense Innovations srl, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
- Corresponding author at: PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126, Italy.
| | - Pietro Patimisco
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica M. Merlin, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro e Politecnico di Bari, Via G. Amendola 173, Bari, 70125, Italy
- PolySense Innovations srl, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
| | - Marilena Giglio
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica M. Merlin, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro e Politecnico di Bari, Via G. Amendola 173, Bari, 70125, Italy
| | - Nicola Amoroso
- Dipartimento di Farmacia—Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, Via A. Orabona 4, Bari, 70125, Italy
| | - Hongpeng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Lei Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Roberto Bellotti
- Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica M. Merlin, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, Via G. Amendola 173, Bari, 70125, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Spagnolo
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica M. Merlin, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro e Politecnico di Bari, Via G. Amendola 173, Bari, 70125, Italy
- PolySense Innovations srl, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
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Sampaolo A, Patimisco P, Giglio M, Zifarelli A, Wu H, Dong L, Spagnolo V. Quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy for multi-gas detection: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2022; 1202:338894. [PMID: 35341511 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2021.338894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Multi-gas detection represents a suitable solution in many applications, such as environmental and atmospheric monitoring, chemical reaction and industrial process control, safety and security, oil&gas and biomedicine. Among optical techniques, Quartz-Enhanced Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (QEPAS) has been demonstrated to be a leading-edge technology for addressing multi-gas detection, thanks to the modularity, ruggedness, portability and real time operation of the QEPAS sensors. The detection module consists in a spectrophone, mounted in a vacuum-tight cell and detecting sound waves generated via photoacoustic excitation within the gas sample. As a result, the sound detection is wavelength-independent and the volume of the absorption cell is basically determined by the spectrophone dimensions, typically in the order of few cubic centimeters. In this review paper, the implementation of the QEPAS technique for multi-gas detection will be discussed for three main areas of applications: i) multi-gas trace sensing by exploiting non-interfering absorption features; ii) multi-gas detection dealing with overlapping absorption bands; iii) multi-gas detection in fluctuating backgrounds. The fundamental role of the analysis and statistical tools will be also discussed in detail in relation with the specific applications. This overview on QEPAS technique, highlighting merits and drawbacks, aims at providing ready-to-use guidelines for multi-gas detection in a wide range of applications and operating conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Sampaolo
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China; Polysense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126, Italy
| | - Pietro Patimisco
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China; Polysense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126, Italy
| | - Marilena Giglio
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China; Polysense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126, Italy
| | - Andrea Zifarelli
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China; Polysense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126, Italy
| | - Hongpeng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Lei Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China.
| | - Vincenzo Spagnolo
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China; Polysense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126, Italy.
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Lang Z, Qiao S, Ma Y. Acoustic microresonator based in-plane quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor with a line interaction mode. OPTICS LETTERS 2022; 47:1295-1298. [PMID: 35290297 DOI: 10.1364/ol.452085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
An acoustic microresonator (AmR) based in-plane quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (IP-QEPAS) sensor with a line interaction mode is proposed for what is believed to be the first time. The interaction area for the acoustic wave of the proposed AmR, with a slotted sidewall, is not limited to a point of the quartz tuning fork (QTF) prongs, but extends along the whole plane of the QTF prongs. Sixteen types of AmRs are designed to identify the best parameters. Water vapor (H2O) is chosen as the analyte to verify the reported method. The results indicate that this AmR for IP-QEPAS with a line interaction mode not only provides a high signal level, but also reduces the thermal noise caused by the laser directly illuminating the QTF. Compared with standard IP-QEPAS without an AmR, the minimum detection limit (MDL) is improved by 4.11 times with the use of the technique proposed in this study.
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Lin H, Zheng H, Montano BAZ, Wu H, Giglio M, Sampaolo A, Patimisco P, Zhu W, Zhong Y, Dong L, Kan R, Yu J, Spagnolo V. Ppb-level gas detection using on-beam quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy based on a 28 kHz tuning fork. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2022; 25:100321. [PMID: 34976726 PMCID: PMC8683655 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2021.100321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, an on-beam quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS) sensor based on a custom quartz tuning fork (QTF) acting as a photoacoustic transducer, was realized and tested. The QTF is characterized by a resonance frequency of 28 kHz, ~15% lower than that of a commercially available 32.7 kHz standard QTF. One-dimensional acoustic micro resonator (AmR) was designed and optimized by using stainless-steel capillaries. The 28 kHz QTF and AmRs are assembled in on-beam QEPAS configuration. The AmR geometrical parameters have been optimized in terms of length and internal diameter. The laser beam focus position and the AmR coupling distance were also adjusted to maximize the coupling efficiency. For comparison, QEPAS on-beam configurations based on a standard QTF and on the 28 kHz QTF were compared in terms of H2O and CO2 detection sensitivity. In order to better characterize the performance of the system, H2O, C2H2 and CO2 were detected for a long time and the long-term stability was analyzed by an Allan variance analysis. With the integration time of 1 s, the detection limits for H2O, C2H2 and CO2 are 1.2 ppm, 28.8 ppb and 2.4 ppm, respectively. The detection limits for H2O, C2H2 and CO2 can be further improved to 325 ppb, 10.3 ppb and 318 ppb by increasing the integration time to 521 s, 183 s and 116 s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoyang Lin
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications, and Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Huadan Zheng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications, and Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Baiyang Antonio Zhou Montano
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications, and Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Hongpeng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Marilena Giglio
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
| | - Angelo Sampaolo
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
| | - Pietro Patimisco
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
| | - Wenguo Zhu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications, and Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Yongchun Zhong
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications, and Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Lei Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Ruifeng Kan
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China
| | - Jianhui Yu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing and Communications, and Department of Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Vincenzo Spagnolo
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
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Sgobba F, Sampaolo A, Patimisco P, Giglio M, Menduni G, Ranieri AC, Hoelzl C, Rossmadl H, Brehm C, Mackowiak V, Assante D, Ranieri E, Spagnolo V. Compact and portable quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor for carbon monoxide environmental monitoring in urban areas. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2022; 25:100318. [PMID: 34888139 PMCID: PMC8636818 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2021.100318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
We report on the realization, calibration, and test outdoor of a 19-inches rack 3-units sized Quartz Enhanced Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (QEPAS) trace gas sensor designed for real-time carbon monoxide monitoring in ambient air. Since CO acts as a slow energy relaxer when excited in the mid-infrared spectral region, its QEPAS signal is affected by the presence of relaxation promoters, such as water vapor, or quenchers like molecular oxygen. We analyzed in detail all the CO relaxation processes with typical collisional partners in an ambient air matrix and used this information to evaluate oxygen and humidity-related effects, allowing the real CO concentration to be retrieved. The sensor was tested outdoor in a trafficked urban area for several hours providing results comparable with the daily averages reported by the local air inspection agency, with spikes in CO concentration correlated to the passages of heavy-duty vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Sgobba
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126 Italy
| | - Angelo Sampaolo
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126 Italy
- PolySense Innovations srl, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126 Italy
| | - Pietro Patimisco
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126 Italy
- PolySense Innovations srl, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126 Italy
| | - Marilena Giglio
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126 Italy
| | - Giansergio Menduni
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126 Italy
| | - Ada Cristina Ranieri
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126 Italy
- Faculty of Engineering, Uninettuno University, 00186 Rome, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | - Dario Assante
- Faculty of Engineering, Uninettuno University, 00186 Rome, Italy
| | - Ezio Ranieri
- Biology Department, University of Bari, Via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Spagnolo
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126 Italy
- PolySense Innovations srl, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126 Italy
- Corresponding author at: PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy.
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11
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Ma Y, Hong Y, Qiao S, Lang Z, Liu X. H-shaped acoustic micro-resonator-based quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy. OPTICS LETTERS 2022; 47:601-604. [PMID: 35103686 DOI: 10.1364/ol.449822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
An H-shaped acoustic micro-resonator (AmR)-based quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS) sensor is demonstrated for the first time. The H-shaped AmR has the advantages of easy optical alignment, high utilization of laser energy, and reduction in optical noise. The parameter of the H-shaped AmR is designed based on the standing wave enhancement characteristic. The performance of the H-shaped AmR-based QEPAS sensor system and bare quartz tuning fork (QTF)-based sensor system are measured under the same conditions by choosing water vapor (H2O) as the target gas. Compared with the QEAPS sensor based on a bare QTF, the detection sensitivity of the optimal H-shaped AmR-based QEPAS sensor exhibits a 17.2 times enhancement.
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12
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Pinto D, Moser H, Waclawek JP, Dello Russo S, Patimisco P, Spagnolo V, Lendl B. Parts-per-billion detection of carbon monoxide: A comparison between quartz-enhanced photoacoustic and photothermal spectroscopy. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2021; 22:100244. [PMID: 33604239 PMCID: PMC7872977 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2021.100244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
We report on a comparison between two optical detection techniques, one based on a Quartz-Enhanced Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (QEPAS) detection module, where a quartz tuning fork is acoustically coupled with a pair of millimeter-sized resonator tubes; and the other one based on a Photothermal Spectroscopy (PTS) module where a Fabry-Perot interferometer acts as transducer to probe refractive index variations. When resonant optical absorption of modulated light occurs in a gas sample, QEPAS directly detects acoustic waves while PTS probes refractive index variations caused by local heating. Compact QEPAS and PTS detection modules were realized and integrated in a gas sensor system for detection of carbon monoxide (CO), targeting the fundamental band at 4.6 μm by using a distributed-feedback quantum cascade laser. Performance was compared and ultimate detection limits up to ∼ 6 part-per-billion (ppb) and ∼15 ppb were reached for QEPAS and the PTS module, respectively, using 100 s integration time and 40 mW of laser power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Pinto
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/164, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Harald Moser
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/164, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes P. Waclawek
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/164, 1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Stefano Dello Russo
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
| | - Pietro Patimisco
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Spagnolo
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
| | - Bernhard Lendl
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, Technische Universität Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/164, 1060 Vienna, Austria
- Corresponding author.
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13
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Sampaolo A, Yu C, Wei T, Zifarelli A, Giglio M, Patimisco P, Zhu H, Zhu H, He L, Wu H, Dong L, Xu G, Spagnolo V. H 2S quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor employing a liquid-nitrogen-cooled THz quantum cascade laser operating in pulsed mode. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2021; 21:100219. [PMID: 33437615 PMCID: PMC7786112 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2020.100219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we report on a quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS) sensor for hydrogen sulfide (H2S) detection, exploiting a liquid-nitrogen-cooled THz quantum cascade laser (QCL) operating in pulsed mode. The spectrophone was designed to accommodate a THz QCL beam and consisted of a custom quartz tuning fork with a large prong spacing, coupled with acoustic resonator tubes. The targeted rotational transition falls at 2.87 THz (95.626 cm-1), with a line-strength of 5.53 ∙ 10-20 cm/mol. A THz QCL peak power of 150 mW was measured at a heat sink temperature of 81 K, pulse width of 1 μs and repetition rate of 15.8 kHz. A QEPAS record sensitivity for H2S detection in the THz range of 360 part-per-billion in volume was achieved at a gas pressure of 60 Torr and 10 s integration time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Sampaolo
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126 Italy
| | - Chenren Yu
- Key Laboratory of Infrared Imaging Materials and Detectors, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
| | - Tingting Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Andrea Zifarelli
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126 Italy
| | - Marilena Giglio
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126 Italy
| | - Pietro Patimisco
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126 Italy
| | - Huan Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Infrared Imaging Materials and Detectors, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
| | - Haiqing Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Infrared Imaging Materials and Detectors, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
| | - Li He
- Key Laboratory of Infrared Imaging Materials and Detectors, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
| | - Hongpeng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Lei Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Gangyi Xu
- Key Laboratory of Infrared Imaging Materials and Detectors, Shanghai Institute of Technical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200083, China
| | - Vincenzo Spagnolo
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
- PolySense Lab, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari, 70126 Italy
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14
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Qiao S, Ma Y, Patimisco P, Sampaolo A, He Y, Lang Z, Tittel FK, Spagnolo V. Multi-pass quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy-based trace gas sensing. OPTICS LETTERS 2021; 46:977-980. [PMID: 33649635 DOI: 10.1364/ol.418520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A multi-pass quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (MP-QEPAS)-based trace gas sensor is reported. In MP-QEPAS, a multi-pass laser beam pattern through the prong spacing of a quartz tuning fork (QTF) is obtained by means of two right-angle prisms. A large QTF with the prong length of 17 mm and prong spacing of 0.8 mm was employed to increase the passage of multi-pass time and ease the alignment of the beam reflection pattern through the QTF. This multi-pass configuration allows the laser beam to pass through the QTF prong spacing six times. Water vapor (H2O) was chosen as target gas to investigate the performance of the MP-QEPAS sensor. Compared to a conventional QEPAS measurement, the MP-QEPAS technique provided an enhancement of signal level of ∼3.2 times.
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15
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Sun B, Zifarelli A, Wu H, Dello Russo S, Li S, Patimisco P, Dong L, Spagnolo V. Mid-Infrared Quartz-Enhanced Photoacoustic Sensor for ppb-Level CO Detection in a SF 6 Gas Matrix Exploiting a T-Grooved Quartz Tuning Fork. Anal Chem 2020; 92:13922-13929. [PMID: 32962343 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
An optical sensor for highly sensitive detection of carbon monoxide (CO) in sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) was demonstrated by using the quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy technique. A spectrophone composed of a custom 8 kHz T-shaped quartz tuning fork with grooved prongs and a pair of resonator tubes, to amplify the laser-induced acoustic waves, was designed aiming to maximize the CO photoacoustic response in SF6. A theoretical analysis and an experimental investigation of the influence of SF6 gas matrix on spectrophone resonance properties for CO detection have been provided, and the performances were compared with the standard air matrix. A mid-infrared quantum cascade laser with a central wavelength at 4.61 μm, resonant with the fundamental band of CO, and an optical power of 20 mW was employed as the light excitation source. A minimum detection limit of 10 ppb at 10 s of integration time was achieved, and a sensor response time of ∼3 min was measured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Andrea Zifarelli
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China.,PolySense Laboratory, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
| | - Hongpeng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Stefano Dello Russo
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China.,PolySense Laboratory, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
| | - Shangzhi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Pietro Patimisco
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China.,PolySense Laboratory, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
| | - Lei Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Vincenzo Spagnolo
- PolySense Laboratory, Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, CNR-IFN, Via Amendola 173, Bari 70126, Italy
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16
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Quartz-Enhanced Photoacoustic Detection of Ethane in the Near-IR Exploiting a Highly Performant Spectrophone. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app10072447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this paper the performances of two spectrophones for quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS)-based ethane gas sensing were tested and compared. Each spectrophone contains a quartz tuning fork (QTF) acoustically coupled with a pair of micro-resonator tubes and having a fundamental mode resonance frequency of 32.7 kHz (standard QTF) and 12.4 kHz (custom QTF), respectively. The spectrophones were implemented into a QEPAS acoustic detection module (ADM) together with a preamplifier having a gain bandwidth optimized for the respective QTF resonance frequency. Each ADM was tested for ethane QEPAS sensing, employing a custom pigtailed laser diode emitting at ~1684 nm as the exciting light source. By flowing 1% ethane at atmospheric pressure, a signal-to-noise ratio of 453.2 was measured by implementing the 12.4 kHz QTF-based ADM, ~3.3 times greater than the value obtained using a standard QTF. The minimum ethane concentration detectable using a 100 ms lock-in integration time achieving the 12.4 kHz custom QTF was 22 ppm.
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17
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Dello Russo S, Zhou S, Zifarelli A, Patimisco P, Sampaolo A, Giglio M, Iannuzzi D, Spagnolo V. Photoacoustic spectroscopy for gas sensing: A comparison between piezoelectric and interferometric readout in custom quartz tuning forks. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2020; 17:100155. [PMID: 31956485 PMCID: PMC6957788 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2019.100155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
We report on a comparison between piezoelectric and interferometric readouts of vibrations in quartz tuning forks (QTFs) when acting as sound wave transducers in a quartz-enhanced photoacoustic setup (QEPAS) for trace gas detection. A theoretical model relating the prong vibration amplitude with the QTF prong sizes and electrical resistance is proposed. To compare interferometric and piezoelectric readouts, two QTFs have been selected; a tuning fork with rectangular-shape of the prongs, having a resonance frequency of 3.4 kHz and a quality-factor of 4,000, and a QTF with prong having a T-shape characterized by a resonance frequency of 12.4 kHz with a quality-factor of 15,000. Comparison between the interferometric and piezoelectric readouts were performed by using both QTFs in a QEPAS sensor setup for water vapor detection. We demonstrated that the QTF geometry can be properly designed to enhance the signal from a specific readout mode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Dello Russo
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Sheng Zhou
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Andrea Zifarelli
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Pietro Patimisco
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Angelo Sampaolo
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Marilena Giglio
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
| | - Davide Iannuzzi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Vincenzo Spagnolo
- PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy
- State Key Laboratory of Quantum Optics and Quantum Optics Devices, Institute of Laser Spectroscopy, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
- Corresponding author at: PolySense Lab - Dipartimento Interateneo di Fisica, University and Politecnico of Bari, Via Amendola 173, Bari, Italy.
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