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Sahu S, Tripathy K, Bhattacharjee M, Chopra D. Engineering mechanical compliance in polymers and composites for the design of smart flexible sensors. Chem Commun (Camb) 2024; 60:4382-4394. [PMID: 38577734 DOI: 10.1039/d4cc00938j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Polymers are one of the most popular materials for next-generation flexible sensing device fabrication due to their tunable mechanical and electrical properties. A series of prior research studies in the field of smart flexible and wearable sensing illustrates the potential of various polymer and composite materials to be applied in sensor development. In this direction, mechanical compliance plays a vital role as it ensures the stability and reliability of the fabricated sensor. Therefore, engineering mechanical compliance for the development of smart flexible solutions has emerged as a significant area of research. Furthermore, the usage of flexible sensing devices is rapidly increasing in the field of healthcare devices and robotic automation. This feature article summarizes the relevant contributions of the authors in the field of engineered polymers and composites for flexible sensor development with a focus on healthcare and physical sensing applications. We discuss the polymer and composite materials, their characteristics, fabrication technologies, finite element method analysis, and examples of flexible physical sensors, i.e. pressure, strain, and temperature sensors, for various wearable healthcare applications and robotic automation. Finally, we discuss examples of multi-sensory systems having flexible sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivank Sahu
- i-lab, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhopal, MP 462066, India.
| | - Kamalesh Tripathy
- i-lab, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhopal, MP 462066, India.
| | - Mitradip Bhattacharjee
- i-lab, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhopal, MP 462066, India.
| | - Deepak Chopra
- Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal, Bhopal By-Pass Road, Bhopal, MP 462066, India.
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Memon AW, Malengier B, Van Torre P, Langenhove LV. A Lattice-Hinge-Design-Based Stretchable Textile Microstrip Patch Antenna for Wireless Strain Sensing at 2.45 GHz. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:8946. [PMID: 37960644 PMCID: PMC10650037 DOI: 10.3390/s23218946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
The manuscript presents a novel approach to designing and fabricating a stretchable patch antenna designed for strain sensing and the wireless communication of sensing data at the same time. The challenge lies in combining flexible and stretchable textile materials with different physical morphologies, which can hinder the adhesion among multiple layers when stacked up, resisting the overall stretchability of the antenna. The proposed antenna design overcomes this challenge by incorporating a lattice hinge pattern into the non-stretchable conductive e-textile, transforming it into a stretchable structure. The innovative design includes longitudinal cuts inserted in both the patch and the ground plane of the antenna, allowing it to stretch along in the perpendicular direction. Implementing the lattice hinge pattern over the conductive layers of the proposed patch antenna, in combination with a 2 mm thick Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrate, achieves a maximum of 25% stretchability compared to its counterpart antenna without a lattice hinge design. The stretchable textile antenna resonates around a frequency of 2.45 GHz and exhibits a linear resonant frequency shift when strained up to 25%. This characteristic makes it suitable for use as a strain sensor. Additionally, the lattice hinge design enhances the conformability and flexibility of the antenna compared to that of a solid patch antenna. The realized antenna gains in the E and H-plane are measured as 2.21 dBi and 2.34 dBi, respectively. Overall, the presented design offers a simple and effective solution for fabricating a stretchable textile patch antenna for normal use or as a sensing element, opening up possibilities for applications in the communication and sensing fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdul Wahab Memon
- Centre of Textile Science and Engineering, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (B.M.); (L.V.L.)
- Department of Textile Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro 76020, Pakistan
| | - Benny Malengier
- Centre of Textile Science and Engineering, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (B.M.); (L.V.L.)
| | - Patrick Van Torre
- Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture Imec-IDLab, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium;
| | - Lieva Van Langenhove
- Centre of Textile Science and Engineering, Department of Materials, Textiles and Chemical Engineering, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; (B.M.); (L.V.L.)
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Deng Z, Guo L, Chen X, Wu W. Smart Wearable Systems for Health Monitoring. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:s23052479. [PMID: 36904682 PMCID: PMC10007426 DOI: 10.3390/s23052479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Smart wearable systems for health monitoring are highly desired in personal wisdom medicine and telemedicine. These systems make the detecting, monitoring, and recording of biosignals portable, long-term, and comfortable. The development and optimization of wearable health-monitoring systems have focused on advanced materials and system integration, and the number of high-performance wearable systems has been gradually increasing in recent years. However, there are still many challenges in these fields, such as balancing the trade-off between flexibility/stretchability, sensing performance, and the robustness of systems. For this reason, more evolution is required to promote the development of wearable health-monitoring systems. In this regard, this review summarizes some representative achievements and recent progress of wearable systems for health monitoring. Meanwhile, a strategy overview is presented about selecting materials, integrating systems, and monitoring biosignals. The next generation of wearable systems for accurate, portable, continuous, and long-term health monitoring will offer more opportunities for disease diagnosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Deng
- School of Nuclear Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
- Nuclear Power Institute of China, Huayang, Shuangliu District, Chengdu 610213, China
| | - Lihao Guo
- School of Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Interdisciplinary Research Center of Smart Sensors, Xidian University, Xi’an 710126, China
| | - Ximeng Chen
- School of Nuclear Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Weiwei Wu
- School of Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Interdisciplinary Research Center of Smart Sensors, Xidian University, Xi’an 710126, China
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Al-Sehemi A, Al-Ghamdi A, Dishovsky N, Atanasov N, Atanasova G. A Flexible Miniature Antenna for Body-Worn Devices: Design and Transmission Performance. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:514. [PMID: 36984921 PMCID: PMC10059130 DOI: 10.3390/mi14030514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The last few years have seen a rapid increase in body-worn devices because these devices cover a broad spectrum of potential uses. Moreover, body-worn devices still require improvements in their flexibility, size, and weight that necessitate the development of flexible and miniature antennas. In this paper, we present a new flexible miniature antenna for body-worn devices. To ensure flexibility and comfort when the antenna is in contact with the human body, a substrate from natural rubber filled with TiO2 is developed. The miniaturization is achieved using the quadratic Koch curve. The antenna design, optimization, and characterization are performed on a human body model. The performance of the antenna is analyzed in two scenarios: (1) in- to on-body, and (2) on- to off-body wireless communications. The results show that the antenna realized the maximum telemetry range of more than 80 mm for in-body communications and more than 2 m for off-body communications. Moreover, the highest 10 g specific absorption rate value was 0.62 W/kg. These results, in addition to the antenna's compact dimensions (12 mm × 26 mm × 2.5 mm) and the low manufacturing price, make the proposed antenna an ideal candidate for health telemetry applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah Al-Sehemi
- Research Center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), King Khalid University, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Al-Ghamdi
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nikolay Dishovsky
- Department of Polymer Engineering, University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Nikolay Atanasov
- Department of Communication and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, South-West University ‘Neofit Rilski’, 2700 Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria
| | - Gabriela Atanasova
- Department of Communication and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, South-West University ‘Neofit Rilski’, 2700 Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria
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On Comparison of 3D-Printed ABS and PVDF-Based Sensors for Body-Centric Utility. ARABIAN JOURNAL FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s13369-023-07658-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
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Anchidin L, Lavric A, Mutescu PM, Petrariu AI, Popa V. The Design and Development of a Microstrip Antenna for Internet of Things Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:1062. [PMID: 36772099 PMCID: PMC9920887 DOI: 10.3390/s23031062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) has become a part of modern life where it is used for data acquisition and long-range wireless communications. Regardless of the IoT application profile, every wireless communication transmission is enabled by highly efficient antennas. The role of the antenna is thus very important and must not be neglected. Considering the high demand of IoT applications, there is a constant need to improve antenna technologies, including new antenna designs, in order to increase the performance level of WSNs (Wireless Sensor Networks) and enhance their efficiency by enabling a long range and a low error-rate communication link. This paper proposes a new antenna design that is able to increase the performance level of IoT applications by means of an original design. The antenna was designed, simulated, tested, and evaluated in a real operating scenario. From the obtained results, it ensured a high level of performance and can be used in IoT applications specific to the 868 MHz frequency band.By inserting two notches along x axis, we find an optimal structure of the microstrip patch antenna with a reflection coefficient of -34.3 dB and a bandwidth of 20 MHz. After testing the designed novel antenna in real IoT operating conditions, we concluded that the proposed antenna can increase the performance level of IoT wireless communications.
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Ates HC, Nguyen PQ, Gonzalez-Macia L, Morales-Narváez E, Güder F, Collins JJ, Dincer C. End-to-end design of wearable sensors. NATURE REVIEWS. MATERIALS 2022; 7:887-907. [PMID: 35910814 PMCID: PMC9306444 DOI: 10.1038/s41578-022-00460-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 83.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Wearable devices provide an alternative pathway to clinical diagnostics by exploiting various physical, chemical and biological sensors to mine physiological (biophysical and/or biochemical) information in real time (preferably, continuously) and in a non-invasive or minimally invasive manner. These sensors can be worn in the form of glasses, jewellery, face masks, wristwatches, fitness bands, tattoo-like devices, bandages or other patches, and textiles. Wearables such as smartwatches have already proved their capability for the early detection and monitoring of the progression and treatment of various diseases, such as COVID-19 and Parkinson disease, through biophysical signals. Next-generation wearable sensors that enable the multimodal and/or multiplexed measurement of physical parameters and biochemical markers in real time and continuously could be a transformative technology for diagnostics, allowing for high-resolution and time-resolved historical recording of the health status of an individual. In this Review, we examine the building blocks of such wearable sensors, including the substrate materials, sensing mechanisms, power modules and decision-making units, by reflecting on the recent developments in the materials, engineering and data science of these components. Finally, we synthesize current trends in the field to provide predictions for the future trajectory of wearable sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. Ceren Ates
- FIT Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- IMTEK – Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Peter Q. Nguyen
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA USA
| | | | - Eden Morales-Narváez
- Biophotonic Nanosensors Laboratory, Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica, León, Mexico
| | - Firat Güder
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - James J. Collins
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA USA
- Institute of Medical Engineering & Science, Department of Biological Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, MA USA
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA USA
| | - Can Dincer
- FIT Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- IMTEK – Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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Atanasov NT, Atanasova GL, Angelova B, Paunov M, Gurmanova M, Kouzmanova M. Wearable Antennas for Sensor Networks and IoT Applications: Evaluation of SAR and Biological Effects. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:5139. [PMID: 35890818 PMCID: PMC9315969 DOI: 10.3390/s22145139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, there has been a rapid development in the wearable industry. The growing number of wearables has led to the demand for new lightweight, flexible wearable antennas. In order to be applicable in IoT wearable devices, the antennas must meet certain electrical, mechanical, manufacturing, and safety requirements (e.g., specific absorption rate (SAR) below worldwide limits). However, the assessment of SAR does not provide information on the mechanisms of interaction between low-intensity electromagnetic fields emitted by wearable antennas and the human body. In this paper, we presented a detailed investigation of the SAR induced in erythrocyte suspensions from a fully textile wearable antenna at realistic (net input power 6.3 mW) and conservative (net input power 450 mW) conditions at 2.41 GHz, as well as results from in vitro experiments on the stability of human erythrocyte membranes at both exposure conditions. The detailed investigation showed that the 1 g average SARs were 0.5758 W/kg and 41.13 W/kg, respectively. Results from the in vitro experiments demonstrated that the short-term (20 min) irradiation of erythrocyte membranes in the reactive near-field of the wearable antenna at 6.3 mW input power had a stabilizing effect. Long-term exposure (120 min) had a destabilizing effect on the erythrocyte membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay Todorov Atanasov
- Department of Communication and Computer Engineering, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, 2700 Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria;
| | - Gabriela Lachezarova Atanasova
- Department of Communication and Computer Engineering, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, 2700 Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria;
| | - Boyana Angelova
- Department of Biophysics and Radiobiology, Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, 1164 Sofia, Bulgaria; (B.A.); (M.P.); (M.G.); (M.K.)
| | - Momchil Paunov
- Department of Biophysics and Radiobiology, Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, 1164 Sofia, Bulgaria; (B.A.); (M.P.); (M.G.); (M.K.)
| | - Maria Gurmanova
- Department of Biophysics and Radiobiology, Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, 1164 Sofia, Bulgaria; (B.A.); (M.P.); (M.G.); (M.K.)
| | - Margarita Kouzmanova
- Department of Biophysics and Radiobiology, Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, 1164 Sofia, Bulgaria; (B.A.); (M.P.); (M.G.); (M.K.)
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Atanasova GL, Atanasov BN, Atanasov NT. Fully Textile Dual-Band Logo Antenna for IoT Wearable Devices. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22124516. [PMID: 35746298 PMCID: PMC9231200 DOI: 10.3390/s22124516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, the interest in the Internet of Things (IoT) has been growing because this technology bridges the gap between the physical and virtual world, by connecting different objects and people through communication networks, in order to improve the quality of life. New IoT wearable devices require new types of antennas with unique shapes, made on unconventional substrates, which can be unobtrusively integrated into clothes and accessories. In this paper, we propose a fully textile dual-band logo antenna integrated with a reflector for application in IoT wearable devices. The proposed antenna’s radiating elements have been shaped to mimic the logo of South-West University “Neofit Rilski” for an unobtrusive integration in accessories. A reflector has been mounted on the opposite side of the textile substrate to reduce the radiation from the wearable antenna and improve its robustness against the loading effect from nearby objects. Two antenna prototypes were fabricated and tested in free space as well as on three different objects (human body, notebook, and laptop). Moreover, in the two frequency ranges of interest a radiation efficiency of 25–38% and 62–90% was achieved. Moreover, due to the reflector, the maximum local specific-absorption rate, which averaged over 10 g mass in the human-body phantom, was found to be equal to 0.5182 W/kg at 2.4 GHz and 0.16379 W/kg at 5.47 GHz. Additionally, the results from the performed measurement-campaign collecting received the signal-strength indicator and packet loss for an off-body scenario in real-world use, demonstrating that the backpack-integrated antenna prototype can form high-quality off-body communication channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Lachezarova Atanasova
- Department of Communication and Computer Engineering, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, 2700 Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria;
- Correspondence: or
| | | | - Nikolay Todorov Atanasov
- Department of Communication and Computer Engineering, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, 2700 Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria;
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Ahmad S, Ghaffar A, Hussain N, Kim N. Compact Dual-Band Antenna with Paired L-Shape Slots for On- and Off-Body Wireless Communication. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21237953. [PMID: 34883957 PMCID: PMC8659880 DOI: 10.3390/s21237953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A simple dual-band patch antenna with paired L-shap slots for on- and off-body communications has been presented in this article. The proposed antenna resonates in the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band at two different frequencies, at 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz. At the lower frequency band, the antenna’s radiation pattern is broadsided directional, whereas it is omni-directional at the higher frequency band. The efficiency and performance of the proposed antenna under the influence of the physical body are improved, and the specific absorption rate (SAR) value is significantly reduced by creating a full ground plane behind the substrate. The substrate’s material is FR-4, the thickness of which is 1.6 mm and it has a loss tangent of tanδ = 0.02. The overall size of the proposed design is 40 mm × 30 mm × 1.6 mm. Physical phantoms, such as skin, fat and muscle, are used to evaluate the impact of physical layers at 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz. The SAR values are assessed and found to be 0.19 W/kg and 1.18 W/kg at 2.45 GHz and 5.8 GHz, respectively, over 1 gram of mass tissue. The acquired results indicate that this antenna can be used for future on- and off-body communications and wireless services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarosh Ahmad
- Department of Signal Theory and Communications, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (UC3M), 28903 Madrid, Spain;
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Technology, Government College University Faisalabad (GCUF), Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
| | - Adnan Ghaffar
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 1010, New Zealand;
| | - Niamat Hussain
- Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Korea;
| | - Nam Kim
- Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Korea;
- Correspondence:
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Tamas RD. Antennas and Propagation: A Sensor Approach. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21144920. [PMID: 34300660 PMCID: PMC8309707 DOI: 10.3390/s21144920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Razvan D Tamas
- Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, Constanta Maritime University, Str. Mircea cel Batran nr. 104, 900663 Constanta, Romania
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Screen Printing Carbon Nanotubes Textiles Antennas for Smart Wearables. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21144934. [PMID: 34300678 PMCID: PMC8309715 DOI: 10.3390/s21144934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Electronic textiles have become a dynamic research field in recent decades, attracting attention to smart wearables to develop and integrate electronic devices onto clothing. Combining traditional screen-printing techniques with novel nanocarbon-based inks offers seamless integration of flexible and conformal antenna patterns onto fabric substrates with a minimum weight penalty and haptic disruption. In this study, two different fabric-based antenna designs called PICA and LOOP were fabricated through a scalable screen-printing process by tuning the conductive ink formulations accompanied by cellulose nanocrystals. The printing process was controlled and monitored by revealing the relationship between the textiles' nature and conducting nano-ink. The fabric prototypes were tested in dynamic environments mimicking complex real-life situations, such as being in proximity to a human body, and being affected by wrinkling, bending, and fabric care such as washing or ironing. Both computational and experimental on-and-off-body antenna gain results acknowledged the potential of tunable material systems complimenting traditional printing techniques for smart sensing technology as a plausible pathway for future wearables.
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Savu V, Rusu MI, Savastru D. The Application of Electromagnetic Sensors for Determination of Cherenkov Cone Inside and in the Vicinity of the Detector Volume in Any Environment Known. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21030992. [PMID: 33540668 PMCID: PMC7867228 DOI: 10.3390/s21030992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The neutrinos of cosmic radiation, due to interaction with any known medium in which the Cherenkov detector is used, produce energy radiation phenomena in the form of a Cherenkov cone, in very large frequency spectrum. These neutrinos carry with them the information about the phenomena that produced them and by detecting the electromagnetic energies generated by the Cherenkov cone, we can find information about the phenomena that formed in the universe, at a much greater distance, than possibility of actually detection with current technologies. At present, a very high number of sensors for detection electromagnetic energy is required. Thus, some sensors may detect very low energy levels, which can lead to the erroneous determination of the Cherenkov cone, thus leading to information errors. As a novelty, we propose, to use these sensors for determination of the dielectrically permittivity of any known medium in which the Cherenkov detector is used, by preliminary measurements, the subsequent simulation of the data and the reconstruction of the Cherenkov cone, leading to a significant reduction of problems and minimizing the number of sensors, implicitly the cost reductions. At the same time, we offer the possibility of reconstructing the Cherenkov cone outside the detector volume.
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