Immunosensors for Autoimmune-Disease-Related Biomarkers: A Literature Review

Biomarkers for early diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints and can even lead to disability. No treatment can completely cure RA, and early intervention is the most effective way to improve the prognosis. Autoantibodies are important in disease diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis assessment, especially rheumatoid factor (RF) and anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPAs), which have been widely used in clinical practice. Several studies have fully discussed the critical roles of RF and ACPA in the pathophysiology of RA, but fewer reviews focus on advances in RF and ACPA-related assays for early diagnosis. Therefore, this article outlines the clinical applications and predictive value of RF and ACPA in early RA diagnosis, along with emerging immunoassays published in the last five years. Additionally, it discusses the advantages and challenges of multiplex immunoassay techniques for simultaneous RF and ACPA detection. Finally, some suggestions for improving the performance of combined testing were summarized to achieve early diagnosis of RA, thereby delaying disease progression.

The Power of Antibodies: Advancing Biomarker-Based Disease Detection and Surveillance

BACKGROUND

Antibodies have long served as fundamental tools in disease diagnosis and surveillance. Their utility as biomarkers has expanded beyond infectious diseases to encompass a wide range of health conditions.

OBJECTIVES

This review aims to explore recent advancements in antibody biomarker discovery and their applications in diagnosing and monitoring diverse health conditions. It also examines the role of antibody surveillance in public health and epidemiological studies.

METHODS

A comprehensive analysis of recent literature was conducted, focusing on studies that identify and characterize disease-specific antibodies. Particular attention was given to their relevance in autoimmune diseases, infections, cancers, and neurological disorders.

CONTENT

The review highlights disease-specific antibody biomarkers and their clinical significance. It also discusses the utility and challenges of antibody-based surveillance in assessing disease prevalence, tracking immunity trends, and supporting One Health strategies.

CONCLUSIONS

Recent advancements in antibody biomarker discovery demonstrate significant potential in improving early diagnosis, personalized treatment, and population-level health management. Antibody surveillance continues to play a pivotal role in guiding public health responses and understanding disease dynamics.

Molybdenum-Based Electrochemical Sensors for Breast Cancer Biomarker Detection: Advances and Challenges

Breast cancer, which is considered the most common type of cancer among women worldwide, is estimated to reach 4.4 million cases in 2070. Early diagnosis has become very important to prevent this expected increase. Various traditional methods, such as mammography, biopsy, enzyme immunoassay (EI), liquid biopsy, immunohistochemistry (IGH), fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) are used to diagnose breast cancer, but the fact that these methods are very expensive, have low sensitivity, and cause mutations in tissues due to X-rays has led researchers to discover faster, more cost-effective, and easily detectable methods. In particular, increased levels of new blood-based biomarkers in the circulation can be detected sensitively and selectively by electrochemical methods to facilitate early disease screening and rapid diagnosis. This comprehensive review focuses on the prevalence and pathology of breast cancer, clinical diagnosis of breast cancer, and electrochemical sensors of molybdenum-based compounds for the detection of various breast cancer biomarkers in recent years. Electrochemical analysis studies carried out in the field in recent years are compiled and are considered as aptamer-based, nucleotide-based, and immunosensors. The chemical properties of molybdenum compounds are discussed, and the modifications of these compounds to the electrode surface are discussed under 4 headings: drop casting, electrodeposition, atomic layer deposition, and electrophoretic deposition.

Advancements of paper-based sensors for antibiotic-resistant bacterial species identification

Evolution of antimicrobial-resistant bacterial species is on a rise. This review aims to explore the diverse range of paper-based platforms designed to identify antimicrobial-resistant bacterial species. It highlights the most important targets used for sensor development and examines the applications of nanosized particles used in paper-based sensors. This review also discusses the advantages, limitations, and applicability of various targets and detection techniques for sensing drug-resistant bacterial species using paper-based platforms.

Sensing of Quercetin With Cobalt-Doped Manganese Nanosystems by Electrochemical Method

BACKGROUND

The pressing need for precise, quick, and affordable detection of diverse biomolecules has led to notable developments in the realm of biosensors. Quercetin, a biomolecule rich in flavonoids predominantly found in our diet, is sensed by the electrochemical method. The electrochemical properties show remarkable improvement when Mn2O3 (MO) is doped with cobalt (Co).  Aim: This study aimed to investigate the biomolecule sensing of quercetin using Co-doped MO by electrochemical method.  Materials and methods: Co-doped MO nanospheres were prepared by hydrothermal method. The crystal structure of the synthesized material was evaluated by using X-ray diffraction analysis. The sample morphology was assessed by using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) techniques. The cyclic voltammetry technique was used for the detection of quercetin biomolecules.  Results: The synthesized Co-doped MO appeared to be spherical in morphology in FE-SEM. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy showed the only presence of Co, Mn, and O, which confirmed the purity of the sample. The modified electrode sensed the biomolecule with a higher current of 7.35 µA than the bare glassy carbon electrode of 6.1 µA.

CONCLUSION

The Co-doped MO exhibited enhanced conductivity, reactivity, and electrochemical performance. This tailored approach will help in the optimization of material properties toward specific biomolecule sensing applications.

Recent Advances in Biosensors for Diagnosis of Autoimmune Diseases

Over the last decade, autoimmune diseases (ADs) have undergone a significant increase because of genetic and/or environmental factors; therefore, their simple and fast diagnosis is of high importance. The conventional diagnostic techniques for ADs require tedious sample preparation, sophisticated instruments, a dedicated laboratory, and qualified personnel. For these reasons, biosensors could represent a useful alternative to these methods. Biosensors are considered to be promising tools that can be used in clinical analysis for an early diagnosis due to their high sensitivity, simplicity, low cost, possible miniaturization (POCT), and potential ability for real-time analysis. In this review, recently developed biosensors for the detection of autoimmune disease biomarkers are discussed. In the first part, we focus on the main AD biomarkers and the current methods of their detection. Then, we discuss the principles and different types of biosensors. Finally, we overview the characteristics of biosensors based on different bioreceptors reported in the literature.