High 1RM Tests Reproducibility and Validity are not Dependent on Training Experience, Muscle Group Tested or Strength Level in Older Women

Reliability and validity of a full-body function Get-Up test in older adults

Identifying deficiencies in physical function in older adults is critical to evaluate important health outcomes like sarcopenia, but current protocols are expensive and require complex equipment. This study evaluates the reliability and validity of an inexpensive, simple new Get-Up test in older adults. It involves participants moving quickly from standing upright, to lying flat, then rising to a standing position unassisted. A total of 293 relatively healthy older adults without severe health conditions (e.g., cardiovascular, psychological, degenerative, or physical impairments) completed the Get-Up test twice for familiarization and twice for timed trials on two separate days alongside numerous validated clinical tests commonly used to assess strength, function, and fitness in older adults. ANOVA with post-hoc analysis and intraclass correlation (0.928 (95% CI [0.914, 0.940])) indicated strong reliability, with the second timed trial comparable to trials on a separate day. The Get-Up test was significantly (p <.0001) negatively correlated with all referenced measures of strength (Biodex peak torque, r = -.41, 1-repetition maximum, r = -.26, handgrip, r = -.38) and function (Short Physical Performance Battery, r = -.49, gait speed, r = -.39) and significantly (p <.0001) positively correlated with fitness (400-m walk, r =.70), which strongly predicted Get-Up test performance, suggesting good validity. Poor performance was associated with baseline sarcopenia prevalence (bottom tertile vs. top tertile: odds ratio 3.99 (95% CI 1.64-9.67)) and sarcopenia incidence after 1-year follow-up (hazard ratio 3.47 (1.10, 10.98)), suggesting potential to evaluate sarcopenia. This simple and safe Get-Up test requires minimal equipment, personnel, and expertise, yet it has good reliability and validity as a potential novel tool for full-body physical function in older adults that is associated with sarcopenia prevalence and incidence.

Minimal important change in the Hip Disability and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score and the European Quality of Life 5 Dimensions in adults with hip osteoarthritis after 12 weeks of exercise

BACKGROUND

Minimal important change (MIC) is the smallest change that can be considered important. In hip osteoarthritis (OA) several measurement instruments are recommended but lack MIC estimates.

OBJECTIVES

The objective was to estimate the MIC after supervised group-based exercise for the following measurement instruments; Hip Disability and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (HOOS), European Quality of Life 5 Dimensions (EQ-5D-5L), 30-s Chair Stand Test, 40-m Fast-paced Walk Test, 9-step Stair Climb Test, Nottingham Leg Extension Power Rig, and unilateral One-Repetition-Maximum Leg Press.

DESIGN

Secondary analysis from a randomized trial of 160 participants with hip OA randomized to two different exercise interventions.

METHODS

Participants were assessed using the instruments at baseline and after 12 weeks of exercise. At follow-up the participants also rated their perceived change using a Global Rating of Change Score (GRCS). A correlation of >0.3 between the measurement instruments and the GRCS was a prerequisite for estimating the MIC using the predictive modeling approach.

RESULTS

Only two measurement instruments had acceptable correlations and were included in the MIC analysis. The MIC for the five HOOS subscales ranged from 6 to 10 points (scale range: 0-100). The MIC for the EQ-5D-5L index (scale range: -0.757 to 1) and EQ-VAS (scale range: 0-100) were 0.054 (0.03; 0.08) and 4.83 (1.37; 8.48), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The reported MIC values indicate the minimal improvement that the average patient with hip OA would consider important after 12 weeks of exercise and will help clinicians and researchers interpret the clinical importance of the results of exercise interventions.

Test-retest reliability of the ten-repetition maximum test in untrained young males and females

[Purpose] This study investigated the test-retest reliability of the ten-repetition maximum leg press (LP) and chest press (CP) tests in untrained young males and females. The secondary aim was to examine the test-retest reliability of the 10RM test according to gender. [Participants and Methods] All participants underwent the ten-repetition maximum test for the LP and CP across three sessions separated by 2 to 6 days of recovery: the first session was familiarization, the second for the initial test, and the third for the retest. To evaluate test-retest reliability, we calculated the intraclass correlation coefficient, standard error of measurement, and minimal detectable change for both the LP and CP. These measures were analyzed separately for each gender to assess gender-related differences. [Results] High intraclass correlation coefficient index was obtained for both LP and CP for both genderes. The standard errors of measurement and minimal detectable changes were consistent with previously reported values. However, females showed more variability than males, particularly in the LP. [Conclusion] The ten-repetition maximum test for LP and CP is a reliable method for measuring strength in untrained young males and females. However, it should be noted that the margin of error may be higher among female participants compared to their male counterparts.

Progressive Resistance Training or Neuromuscular Exercise for Hip Osteoarthritis : A Multicenter Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Exercise is recommended as first-line treatment for patients with hip osteoarthritis (OA). However, randomized controlled trials providing evidence for the optimal exercise type are lacking.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether progressive resistance training (PRT) is superior to neuromuscular exercise (NEMEX) for improving functional performance in patients with hip OA.

DESIGN

Multicenter, cluster-randomized, controlled, parallel-group, assessor-blinded, superiority trial. (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04714047).

SETTING

Hospitals and physiotherapy clinics.

PARTICIPANTS

160 participants with clinically diagnosed hip OA were enrolled from 18 January 2021 to 28 April 2023 and randomly assigned to PRT (n = 82) or NEMEX (n = 78).

INTERVENTION

Twelve weeks of PRT or NEMEX with 2 supervised 60-minute group sessions each week. The PRT intervention consisted of 5 high-intensity resistance training exercises targeting muscles at the hip and knee joints. The NEMEX intervention included 10 exercises and emphasized sensorimotor control and functional stability.

MEASUREMENTS

The primary outcome was change in the 30-second chair stand test (30s-CST). Key secondary outcomes were changes in scores on the pain and hip-related quality of life (QoL) subscales of the Hip Disability and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (HOOS).

RESULTS

The mean changes from baseline to 12-week follow-up in the 30s-CST were 1.5 (95% CI, 0.9 to 2.1) chair stands with PRT and 1.5 (CI, 0.9 to 2.1) chair stands with NEMEX (difference, 0.0 [CI, -0.8 to 0.8] chair stands). For the HOOS pain subscale, mean changes were 8.6 (CI, 5.3 to 11.8) points with PRT and 9.3 (CI, 5.9 to 12.6) points with NEMEX (difference, -0.7 [CI, -5.3 to 4.0] points). For the HOOS QoL subscale, mean changes were 8.0 (CI, 4.3 to 11.7) points with PRT and 5.7 (CI, 1.9 to 9.5) points with NEMEX (difference, 2.3 [CI, -3.0 to 7.6] points).

LIMITATION

Participants and physiotherapists were not blinded.

CONCLUSION

In patients with hip OA, PRT is not superior to NEMEX for improving functional performance, hip pain, or hip-related QoL.

PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE

Independent Research Fund Denmark.

Assessing the robustness of muscle strength and physical performance measures in women older than 40 years: a test-retest reliability study

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the test-retest reliability and minimal detectable change (MDC) of muscle strength and physical performance tests in women older than 40 years.

METHODS

A total of 113 women, aged 58 ± 11 years (82% postmenopausal women), with a body mass index of 28.5 ± 5.8 kg/m 2 , participated in this study. One-repetition maximum (1RM) tests were conducted for seven strength exercises: 45° leg press, bench press, leg extension, pec deck, wide-grip lateral pull-down, leg curl, and seated cable row, with a retest after 48 hours. Timed Up and Go (TUG), 6-minute walk, and 30-second sit-to-stand tests were performed on the same day and retested after 72 hours. The tests and retests were administered by the same evaluators. Relative reliability (consistency of participant rank between test-retest) was assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient for consistency and agreement, and absolute reliability (precision of score) was assessed using the MDC based on the standard error of prediction.

RESULTS

The 1RM and performance tests exhibited excellent reliability: 45° leg press (consistency, 0.99; agreement, 0.98), bench press (consistency, 0.96; agreement, 0.96), leg extension (consistency, 0.93; agreement, 0.91), pec deck (consistency, 0.90; agreement, 0.88), wide-grip lateral pull-down (consistency, 0.91; agreement, 0.89), leg curl (consistency, 0.84; agreement, 0.83), seated cable row (consistency, 0.92; agreement, 0.94), TUG (consistency, 0.87; agreement, 0.87), 6-minute walk (consistency, 0.96; agreement, 0.95), and 30-second sit to stand (consistency, 0.85; agreement, 0.80). These tests showed meaningful MDC values, particularly for the 1RM test performed on the machine and the 30-second sit-to-stand test: 45° leg press, 22.2 kg (15%); bench press, 4.9 kg (19%); leg extension, 9.2 kg (35%); pec deck, 8.8 kg (44%); wide-grip lateral pull-down, 9.4 kg (31%); leg curl, 9.2 kg (51%); seated cable row, 11.4 kg (29%); TUG, 1.4 seconds (20%); 6-minute walk, 50.9 m (10%); and 30-second sit to stand, 4.6 reps (30%).

CONCLUSIONS

Although the muscle strength and physical performance tests demonstrate excellent relative reliability in women older than 40 years, they exhibit low absolute reliability, particularly the 1RM test performed on the machine and the 30-second sit-to-stand test. Therefore, although these tests show good consistency in the positioning of women within the group after repeated measures, their precision measure is relatively low (high fluctuation). Changes in these tests that are smaller than the MDC may not indicate real changes in women at middle age and older.

Incorporating Exercise Training into Cardio-Oncology Care: Current Evidence and Opportunities: JACC: CardioOncology State-of-the-Art Review

Cancer treatment-induced cardiotoxicities are an ongoing concern throughout the cancer care continuum from treatment initiation to survivorship. Several "standard-of-care" primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention strategies are available to prevent the development or further progression of cancer treatment-induced cardiotoxicities and their risk factors. Despite exercise's established benefits on the cardiovascular system, it has not been widely adopted as a nonpharmacologic cardioprotective strategy within cardio-oncology care. In this state-of-the-art review, the authors discuss cancer treatment-induced cardiotoxicities, review the existing evidence supporting the role of exercise in preventing and managing these sequelae in at-risk and affected individuals living after cancer diagnoses, and propose considerations for implementing exercise-based services in cardio-oncology practice.

Do people with musculoskeletal pain differ from healthy cohorts in terms of global measures of strength? A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

It is currently unknown if people with musculoskeletal pain display different multi-joint strength capacities than healthy cohorts. The aim was to investigate whether people with musculoskeletal pain show differences in global measures of strength in comparison to healthy cohorts.

DATA SOURCES

A systematic review was conducted using three databases (Medline, CINAHL and SPORTDiscus) and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines.

REVIEW METHODS

Studies involving participants with painful musculoskeletal conditions and multi-joint strength assessment measured at baseline were included. A meta-analysis was also performed to compute standardized mean differences (± 95% confidence intervals), using Hedge's g, and examined the differences in multi-joint strength at baseline between participants with painful musculoskeletal conditions and healthy participants.

RESULTS

In total, 5043 articles were identified, of which 20 articles met the inclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative analysis. The available evidence revealed that multi-joint strength values were limited to knee osteoarthritis, fibromyalgia, chronic low back pain, and rheumatoid arthritis. Only four studies were included in the quantitative synthesis and revealed that only small differences in both chest press (g = -0.34, 95% CI [-0.64, -0.03]) and leg press (g = -0.25, 95% CI [-0.49, -0.02]) existed between adult women with fibromyalgia and active community women.

CONCLUSION

There is a paucity of multi-joint strength values in participants with musculoskeletal pain. Quantitative comparison with healthy cohorts was limited, except for those with fibromyalgia. Adult women with fibromyalgia displayed reduced multi-joint strength values in comparison to active community women.

Progressive resistance training compared to neuromuscular exercise in patients with hip osteoarthritis and the additive effect of exercise booster sessions: protocol for a multicentre cluster randomised controlled trial (The Hip Booster Trial)

INTRODUCTION

The primary aim of this randomised controlled trial is to investigate the effectiveness of 3 months of progressive resistance training (PRT) compared to neuromuscular exercise (NEMEX) on functional performance in patients with hip osteoarthritis (OA). Secondary aims are to investigate the effectiveness of exercise booster sessions (EBS) in prolonging the effects of the initial exercise interventions as well as to investigate the cost-effectiveness of PRT, NEMEX and EBS at 12-month follow-up.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This multicentre cluster randomised controlled trial will be conducted at hospitals and physiotherapy clinics across Denmark. A total of 160 participants with clinically diagnosed hip OA will be recruited. Participants will be cluster randomised to a 3-month intervention of either PRT or NEMEX and to receive EBS or not, resulting in four treatment arms.The primary outcome is change in functional performance, measured by the 30 s chair stand test at 3 months for the primary comparison and at 12 months for the EBS comparisons. Secondary outcomes include changes in 40 m fast-paced walk test, 9-step timed stair climb test, leg extensor muscle power and maximal strength, Hip disability and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score subscales, EuroQol Group 5-dimension, global perceived effect, physical activity and pain. Outcomes are measured at baseline, after the initial 3 months of intervention, and at 6-month, 9-month and 12-month follow-up. An intention-to-treat approach will be used for analysing changes in the primary and secondary outcome measures.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The trial has been approved by the Central Denmark Region Committee on Biomedical Research Ethics (Journal No 1-10-72-267-20) and registered at the Danish Data Protection Agency (Journal No 1-16-02-11-21). Results will be published in international peer-reviewed scientific journals.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT04714047.

Test-Retest Reliability of Isokinetic Strength Measurements in Lower Limbs in Elderly

Strength is essential for carrying out the usual activities of daily life. As there is a loss of strength in elderly, many treatments are based on delaying the loss of strength or maintaining it. Isokinetic dynamometry is the gold standard for assessing strength. It is essential that studies are conducted to allow us to identify the reliability of isokinetic strength assessments in older people. This study aimed to test the absolute and relative intra-session reliability of peak torque and work of a concentric knee extension-flexion performed at 60°/s in elderly. Fifty-two elderly subjects performed three repetitions of bilateral concentric knee extension-flexion at 60°/s using an isokinetic dynamometer. The relative and absolute reliability were calculated between the second and third repetition. The intra-class correlation coefficient values were between 0.94 and 0.98 for peak torque and work in all measures, which is considered “excellent”, except for left leg flexors in women, with values between 0.85 and 0.88, which is considered “good”. The standard error of measurement (SEM) percentage oscillated from 3.9% to 10.5%, with a smallest real difference (SRD) percentage of 10.9% to 29.2% for peak torque. The relative reliability of peak torque and work were excellent for all measures except flexors in women, evidencing the utility of isokinetic dynamometry for monitoring lower limb maximal muscle strength and work of concentric knee extension-flexion at 60°/s/s in the elderly. In addition, an SRD > 19.9% in peak torque and an SRD > 23.1% in work is considered a true change.

Efficacy of resistance training during adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy in cancer care: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

To determine the effect of resistance training during adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy in cancer patients on measures of lean mass and muscle strength. Secondary aims were to analyse the prescription and tolerability of supervised resistance training in this population.

METHODS

EMBASE, Medline, CINAHL, Cochrane Library and Web of Science were searched from inception until 29 March 2021. Eligible randomised controlled trials (RCTs) examining supervised resistance training > 6 weeks duration during adjuvant chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy in cancer patients with objective measurement of muscle strength and/or lean mass were included. The meta-analysis was performed using Revman 5.4.

RESULTS

A total of 1910 participants from 20 articles were included (mean age: 54 years, SD = 10) and the majority were female (76.5%). Resistance training was associated with a significant increase in upper body strength (standardised mean difference (SMD) = 0.57, 95% CI 0.36 to 0.79, I2 = 64%, P < 0.0001), lower body strength (SMD = 0.58, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.98, I2 = 91%, P = 0.005), grip strength (mean difference (MD) = 1.32, 95% CI 0.37 to 2.27, I2 = 0%, P < 0.01) and lean mass (SMD = 0.23, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.42, I2 = 0%, P = 0.02). A P value of < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The quality of the studies included was moderate to high with low risk of bias as per the PEDro scale.

CONCLUSION

Resistance training is an effective adjunct therapy to improve muscle strength and lean mass in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020180643.

Effects of supervised high-intensity hardstyle kettlebell training on grip strength and health-related physical fitness in insufficiently active older adults: the BELL pragmatic controlled trial

The Ballistic Exercise of the Lower Limb (BELL) trial examined the efficacy and safety of a pragmatic hardstyle kettlebell training program in older adults. Insufficiently active men and women aged 59–79 years, were recruited to a 6-month repeated measures study, involving 3-months usual activity and 3-months progressive hardstyle kettlebell training. Health-related physical fitness outcomes included: grip strength [GS], 6-min walk distance [6MWD], resting heart rate [HR], stair-climb [SC], leg extensor strength [LES], hip extensor strength [HES], Sit-To-Stand [STS], vertical jump [CMVJ], five-times floor transfer [5xFT], 1RM deadlift, body composition (DXA), attendance, and adverse events. Sixteen males (68.8 ± 4.6 yrs, 176.2 ± 7.8 cm, 90.7 ± 11.0 kg, 29.2 ± 2.6 kg/m²) and sixteen females (68.6 ± 4.7 yrs, 163.9 ± 5.4 cm, 70.4 ± 12.7 kg, 26.3 ± 4.9 kg/m²) were recruited. Compliance with the supervised exercise program was very high (91.5%). Kettlebell training increased GS (R: MD = 7.1 kg 95% CI [4.9, 9.3], L: MD = 6.3 kg 95% CI [4.1, 8.4]), 6MWD (41.7 m, 95% CI [17.9, 65.5]), 1RM (16.2 kg, 95% CI [2.4, 30.0]), 30 s STS (3.3 reps, 95% CI [0.9, 5.7]), LES (R: MD = 61.6 N, 95% CI [4.4, 118.8]), HES (L: MD = 21.0 N,95% CI [4.2,37.8]), appendicular skeletal lean mass (MD = 0.65 kg, 95% CI [0.08, 1.22]), self-reported health change (17.1%, 95% CI [4.4, 29.8]) and decreased SC time (2.7 s, 95% CI [0.2, 5.2]), 5xFT time (6.0 s, 95% CI [2.2, 9.8]) and resting HR (7.4 bpm, 95% CI [0.7, 14.1]). There were four non-serious adverse events. Mean individual training load for group training sessions during the trial was 100,977 ± 9,050 kg. High-intensity hardstyle kettlebell training was well tolerated and improved grip strength and measures of health-related physical fitness in insufficiently active older adults.

Trial registration: Prospectively registered: 20/08/2019, Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12619001177145).

One Repetition Maximum Test-Retest Reliability and Safety Using Keiser Pneumatic Resistance Training Machines With Older Women

ABSTRACT

Infante, MA, Harrell, GM, Strand, KL, Parrino, RL, and Signorile, JF. One repetition maximum test-retest reliability and safety using Keiser pneumatic resistance training machines with older women. J Strength Cond Res 35(12): 3513-3517, 2021-Chest press (CP) and leg press (LP) are the most common exercises used to assess strength in older persons; therefore, the reliability of these tests is critical to clinicians and researchers. Because women comprise the highest proportion of the older population, this study examined the test-retest reliability of Keiser A420 pneumatic machines during CP and LP 1 repetition maximum (1RM) testing in 23 older women on 2 separate occasions, trial 1 (T1) and trial 2 (T2), at least 72 hours apart. Significance was set at <0.05. CP1RM and LP1RM showed excellent test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.974, 0.972, respectively, p < 0.001) and low coefficients of variation (CP1RM = 5.28%; LP1RM = 6.32%). Standard error of measurement for CP1RM (0.97 kg) was lower than that of LP1RM (6.36 kg). The minimal detectable change (MDC) for the CP1RM and LP1RM was 2.69 and 17.63 kg, respectively. Bland-Altman plots revealed only 1 point outside of the 95% CI for comparison of T1 and T2 for either exercise, there was little systematic error across average values, both lines of equality fell within the limits of agreement (LOA), and the bias between T1 and T2 for both exercises was below 5% of the average 1RM. By contrast, the LOA for CP1RM and LP1RM are somewhat wide because they both exceeded their computed MDC values. Given the excellent test-retest reliability of the Keiser A420 pneumatic CP and LP machines with older women, clinicians and researchers can confidently and safely use these machines for 1RM testing after proper familiarization.

Effects of Photobiomodulation/Laser Therapy Combined With Resistance Training on Quadriceps Hypertrophy and Strength, and Postural Balance in Older Women: A Randomized, Triple-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Physical and therapeutic strategies to maintain and rehabilitate skeletal muscle mass, strength, and postural balance are clinically relevant to improve the health, well-being, and quality of life of older adults. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of photobiomodulation (PBM)/laser therapy combined with a resistance training (RT) program on quadriceps hypertrophy and strength, and postural balance in older women.

METHODS

In a randomized, triple-blinded, placebo-controlled design, twenty-two older women (age 66.6 ± 5.2 years) were engaged in a supervised 10-wk RT program (2 times per week) involving unilateral leg extension exercise, in which each leg of the same participant was randomly assigned to receive active (λ = 808 nm, optical output = 100 mW, total energy = 42 J) or placebo laser PBM immediately before the RT sessions. Maximal dynamic strength by unilateral knee extension 1-repetition maximum (1RM), muscle hypertrophy by vastus lateralis muscle thickness, and postural balance by one-legged stance test on a force platform were assessed before and after the training program.

RESULTS

Significance statistical analysis revealed a similar improvement (time P = .003) from pre- to posttraining for muscle hypertrophy and strength, and postural balance between active and placebo laser conditions. However, clinical interpretation for muscle hypertrophy showed a moderate effect (effect size [ES] = 0.58) for the active laser and a small effect (ES = 0.38) for the placebo laser. Clinical difference was not noticed between conditions for other analyzed variables.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that RT alone can be clinically important for counteracting the deleterious effects of aging on muscle size, strength, and balance, and that applying laser PBM therapy before the RT sessions may further improve gains in muscle hypertrophy.

Leg press and chest press strength normative values by half-decades in older persons

Evaluating muscular strength is vital to the application of effective training protocols that target quality of life and independence in older individuals. Resistance training is a valuable tool to improve functional capacity, strength, and power in this population; however, the lack of normative values for common lifts such as the leg press (LP) and chest press (CP) reduce its utility. This study developed age- and sex-specific normative strength values for older individuals. LP and CP 1-repetition maximum (1RM) values on Keiser A420 pneumatic machines were compiled from 445 older adults, ages 60-85y. Descriptive statistics and quartile rankings are reported, and two-way ANOVAs were conducted to determine differences between sex and age groups. There were significant sex x age group interactions for LP and CP. Men were significantly stronger than women across all age groups for both exercises (p < .01); however, the mean difference decreased with age. For men, no differences were seen among the 60-64 (237 ± 39 kg), 65-69 (223 ± 43 kg) and 70-74 (219 ± 50 kg) age groups; but the 60-64 group showed higher strength values than the 75-79 group (193 ± 52 kg) and all three groups contained higher strength values than the 80-85 group (172 ± 40 kg). Similarly, for relative strength, the 60-64 group (2.80 ± 0.53 kg·kgBM) surpassed values for all groups but the 65-69, and the 65-69 (2.70 ± 0.54 kg·kgBM) produced greater strength values than the 70-74 (2.45 ± 0.47 kg·kgBM), 75-79 (2.09 ± 0.37 kg·kgBM) and 80-85 (2.19 ± 0.38 kg·kgBM) groups. In contrast, no significant differences in absolute or relative strength were seen among age groups for the women. Our study establishes absolute and relative age- and sex-specific normative values for the LP1RM and CP1RM in older individuals. These values allow practitioners and researchers to interpret the results of various interventions, and evaluate their importance to evaluation of sarcopenia, injury risk, functional mobility and quality of life. Additionally, our results reveal that age-related declines in strength are prominent for male LP and CP, but not female CP or LP.

Maximal force production requires OPTIMAL conditions

The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning identifies several motivational and attentional factors that draw out latent motor performance capabilities. One implication of the OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016) is that standardized motor performance assessments likely do not reflect maximal capabilities unless they are "optimized" with appropriate testing conditions. The present study examined the effects of three key motivational (enhanced expectancies, EE, and autonomy support, AS) and attentional (external focus, EF) variables in the OPTIMAL theory on maximum force production. In Experiment 1, a handgrip strength task was used. EE, AS, and EF were implemented, in a counterbalanced order, on consecutive trial blocks in an optimized group. A control group performed all blocks under neutral conditions. While there were no group differences on Block 1 (baseline), the optimized group outperformed the control group on all other blocks. In Experiment 2, participants performed two one-repetition maximum (1-RM) squat lift tests, separated by one week. Two groups, an optimized group and control group, had similar 1-RM values on the first test performed under neutral conditions. However, on the second test, a group performing under optimized conditions (EE, AS, EF) showed an increase in 1-RM, while there was no change from the first to the second test for a control group. We argue that standard test conditions may not produce true maximal performance. The findings corroborate the importance of key factors in the OPTIMAL theory and should be applied to ensure accurate strength performance assessment.

Test-Retest Reliability of the One-Repetition Maximum (1RM) Strength Assessment: a Systematic Review

Background

The test–retest reliability of the one-repetition maximum (1RM) test varies across different studies. Given the inconsistent findings, it is unclear what the true reliability of the 1RM test is, and to what extent it is affected by measurement-related factors, such as exercise selection for the test, the number of familiarization trials and resistance training experience.

Objectives

The aim of this paper was to review studies that investigated the reliability of the 1RM test of muscular strength and summarize their findings.

Methods

The PRISMA guidelines were followed for this systematic review. Searches for studies were conducted through eight databases. Studies that investigated test–retest reliability of the 1RM test and presented intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) and/or coefficient of variation (CV) were included. The COSMIN checklist was used for the assessment of the methodological quality of the included studies.

Results

After reviewing 1024 search records, 32 studies (pooled n = 1595) on test–retest reliability of 1RM assessment were found. All the studies were of moderate or excellent methodological quality. Test–retest ICCs ranged from 0.64 to 0.99 (median ICC = 0.97), where 92% of ICCs were ≥ 0.90, and 97% of ICCs were ≥ 0.80. The CVs ranged from 0.5 to 12.1% (median CV = 4.2%). ICCs were generally high (≥ 0.90), and most CVs were low (< 10%) for 1RM tests: (1) among those without and for those with some resistance training experience, (2) conducted with or without familiarization sessions, (3) with single-joint or multi-joint exercises, (4) for upper- and lower-body strength assessment, (5) among females and males, and (6) among young to middle-aged adults and among older adults. Most studies did not find systematic changes in test results between the trials.

Conclusions

Based on the results of this review, it can be concluded that the 1RM test generally has good to excellent test–retest reliability, regardless of resistance training experience, number of familiarization sessions, exercise selection, part of the body assessed (upper vs. lower body), and sex or age of participants. Researchers and practitioners, therefore, can use the 1RM test as a reliable test of muscular strength.

Cluster-sets resistance training induce similar functional and strength improvements than the traditional method in postmenopausal and elderly women

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of 12 weeks of traditional resistance training (TRT) or resistance training using Cluster-set (CS) on functional performance and physical fitness of postmenopausal and elderly women.

METHODS

Participants (61.1 ± 4.9 years, body mass 64.5 ± 1.8 kg, height 155.7 ± 4.7 cm) were randomized to TRT (n = 35) or CS (n = 31). Anthropometric measures, muscle strength and power, gait speed, core stability, flexibility, and functional performance tests were performed before and after 12 weeks of training. The difference between protocols was the structure of rest intervals. The TRT group performed 120 s of rest between sets of 8 repetitions, while the CS performed 30 s of rest after every 2 repetitions. Two-way ANOVA with repeated measures was applied for each variable and, when needed, the Bonferroni post hoc was used. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

RESULTS

No group by time interaction was found for any variable. Regarding between-moment comparisons, there were significant improvements for 1 repetition maximum (RM) bench press (F = 104.6; η_p² = 0.62; p < 0.001), 1RM leg press (F = 74.6; η_p² = 0.53; p < 0.001), medicine ball throw (F = 64.0; η_p² = 0.26; p < 0.001), standing long jump (F = 27.6; η_p² = 0.30; p < 0.001), countermovement jump (F = 17.4; η_p² = 0.21; p < 0.001), squat jump (F = 23.2; η_p² = 0.26; p < 0.001), plank time (F = 31.6; η_p² = 0.33; p < 0.001), 6 m walking test (F = 18.0; η_p² = 0.22; p < 0.001), sit-to-stand test (F = 20.4; η_p² = 0.24; p < 0.001), sit and reach test (F = 56.8; η_p² = 0.47; p < 0.001) and 2 kg elbow curls (F = 15.9; η_p² = 0.19; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Considering that both CS and TRT methods were equally effective to improve the physical fitness and functionality of elderly women, the decision of which protocol to use should be based on individual preferences and practical aspects.