Nutrition Recommendations for Bodybuilders in the Off-Season: A Narrative Review

High Protein Diets and Glomerular Hyperfiltration in Athletes and Bodybuilders: Is Chronic Kidney Disease the Real Finish Line?

Several observational and experimental studies in humans have suggested that high protein intake (PI) causes intraglomerular hypertension leading to hyperfiltration. This phenomenon results in progressive loss of renal function with long-term exposure to high-protein diets (HPDs), even in healthy people. The recommended daily allowance for PI is 0.83 g/kg per day, which meets the protein requirement for approximately 98% of the population. A HPD is defined as a protein consumption > 1.5 g/kg per day. Athletes and bodybuilders are encouraged to follow HPDs to optimize muscle protein balance, increase lean body mass, and enhance performance. A series of studies in resistance-trained athletes looking at HPD has been published concluding that there are no harmful effects of HPD on renal health. However, the aim of these studies was to evaluate body composition changes and they were not designed to assess safety or kidney outcomes. Here we review the effects of HPD on kidney health in athletes and healthy individuals with normal kidney function.

Knowledge, Prevalence, and Consequences of Dietary Supplements Intake among Iranian Bodybuilders

Background

This study investigated the nutritional knowledge and prevalence of dietary supplements (DSs) among Iranian bodybuilders.

Methods

This cross-sectional research study involved sampling 648 bodybuilding clubs in Iran. A researcher distributed questionnaires among clubs in various regions and analyzed categorical variables, DS, nutritional knowledge, and sports nutrition data from 160 bodybuilders aged 18 and above in Iran. The analysis was conducted using the results obtained from a quantitative questionnaire.

Results

There was a significant relationship between DS use and gender (P = 0.001, r = 0.330, males > females), bodybuilding history (P = 0.045; r = 0.158), and exercise sessions/wk (P = 0.050, r = 0.156). Whey protein (45.6%) and branched-chain amino acid (33.7%), vitamin D (50%), caffeine (34.3%), and generally vitamin C (56.2%) were the most common DS used. The most information sources for bodybuilders regarding DS were fitness coaches (35.6%) and registered dietitians/nutritionists (34.3%). Drug stores (36.7%) and fitness coaches (19.3%) were the most prominent sources for purchasing DS. Increasing performance (54.3%), increasing the need for DS through exercise (53.6%), preventing injury, and improving recovery (36.2%) were the most important reasons to consume DS. Skin problems (21.0%), increased liver enzymes (10.8%), and hair loss (9.4%) were the most common side effects of DS use. Total nutritional knowledge (macronutrients, micronutrients, and sports nutrition) was 58.6%.

Conclusions

This study concluded that fitness coaches and registered dietitians/nutritionists were the most common information sources for bodybuilders. It also revealed a moderate level of nutrition knowledge among bodybuilders. The most commonly used DS were vitamins C, D, and whey protein. Also, gender, bodybuilding history, and exercise sessions had a significant relationship with the prevalence of DS. However, the study also revealed some concerning findings; bodybuilders commonly experienced adverse side effects such as skin rashes, increased liver enzymes, and hair loss.

Protein Requirements for Maximal Muscle Mass and Athletic Performance Are Achieved with Completely Plant-Based Diets Scaled to Meet Energy Needs: A Modeling Study in Professional American Football Players

American football players consume large quantities of animal-sourced protein in adherence with traditional recommendations to maximize muscle development and athletic performance. This contrasts with dietary guidelines, which recommend reducing meat intake and increasing consumption of plant-based foods to promote health and reduce the risk of chronic disease. The capacity of completely plant-based diets to meet the nutritional needs of American football players has not been studied. This modeling study scaled dietary data from a large cohort following completely plant-based diets to meet the energy requirements of professional American football players to determine whether protein, leucine, and micronutrient needs for physical performance and health were met. The Cunningham equation was used to estimate calorie requirements. Nutrient intakes from the Adventist Health Study 2 were then scaled to this calorie level. Protein values ranged from 1.6-2.2 g/kg/day and leucine values ranged from 3.8-4.1 g/meal at each of four daily meals, therefore meeting and exceeding levels theorized to maximize muscle mass, muscle strength, and muscle protein synthesis, respectively. Plant-based diets scaled to meet the energy needs of professional American football players satisfied protein, leucine, and micronutrient requirements for muscle development and athletic performance. These findings suggest that completely plant-based diets could bridge the gap between dietary recommendations for chronic disease prevention and athletic performance in American football players.

Completely Plant-Based Diets That Meet Energy Requirements for Resistance Training Can Supply Enough Protein and Leucine to Maximize Hypertrophy and Strength in Male Bodybuilders: A Modeling Study

Despite increasing awareness of plant-based diets for health and athletic performance, athletes are cautioned that careful dietary monitoring is necessary. Whether commonly consumed plant-based diets are nutritionally adequate for maximal muscular hypertrophy remains unknown. This modeling study assessed the nutrient composition of completely plant-based diets scaled to the caloric demands of maximal muscle mass and strength development in adult male bodybuilders. To model calorie requirements, anthropometric data from bodybuilders were input into the Tinsley resting metabolic rate prediction equation, and an appropriate physical activity factor and calorie surplus were applied. Dietary data from a large cohort following completely plant-based diets were then scaled to meet these needs. Modeled intakes for nutrients of interest were calculated as 1.8 g/kg/day of protein and 2.75 g/meal of leucine, which surpass mean requirements for maximal increases in muscle mass and strength and muscle protein synthesis, respectively. Daily levels for all micronutrients, except vitamin D, also exceeded requirements. Saturated fat levels were aligned with dietary guidelines, although sodium levels exceeded recommended limits. Consumption of larger portions of commonplace plant-based diets, scaled to meet the energy demands of maximal accrual of muscle mass and strength, satisfied protein and leucine requirements without the need for additional planning.

Not Only Protein: Dietary Supplements to Optimize the Skeletal Muscle Growth Response to Resistance Training: The Current State of Knowledge

Regarding skeletal muscle hypertrophy, resistance training and nutrition, the most often discussed and proposed supplements include proteins. Although, the correct amount, quality, and daily distribution of proteins is of paramount importance for skeletal muscle hypertrophy, there are many other nutritional supplements that can help and support the physiological response of skeletal muscle to resistance training in terms of muscle hypertrophy. A healthy muscle environment and a correct whole muscle metabolism response to the stress of training is a prerequisite for the increase in muscle protein synthesis and, therefore, muscle hypertrophy. In this review, we discuss the role of different nutritional supplements such as carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, creatine, omega-3, polyphenols, and probiotics as a support and complementary factors to the main supplement i.e., protein. The different mechanisms are discussed in the light of recent evidence.

Impact of the ketogenic diet on body fat, muscle mass, and exercise performance: a review

PURPOSE

The purpose of this review was to investigate the effects of the ketogenic diet (KD), on body fat, muscle mass, and exercise performance. As the KD is a subject of ongoing debate, we also present the existing evidence regarding its potential benefits in the aforementioned areas of body fat, muscle mass, and exercise performance.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted using the keywords "ketogenic diet, low-carbohydrate diet, high-fat diet, body fat, muscle mass, and exercise performance" in PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar.

RESULTS

The KD effectively reduced body fat in the short term and, preserved muscle mass during weight loss, however, its impact on exercise performance remains inconclusive owing to various factors.

CONCLUSION

While controversial, it is undeniable that the KD has the potential to affect body fat, muscle mass, and exercise performance. Consequently, additional research is required to elucidate the underlying mechanisms across various populations, optimize their implementation, and understand their long-term effects.

Effect of Small and Large Energy Surpluses on Strength, Muscle, and Skinfold Thickness in Resistance-Trained Individuals: A Parallel Groups Design

BACKGROUND

Many perform resistance training (RT) to increase muscle mass and strength. Energy surpluses are advised to support such gains; however, if too large, could cause unnecessary fat gain. We randomized 21 trained lifters performing RT 3 d/wk for eight weeks into maintenance energy (MAIN), moderate (5% [MOD]), and high (15% [HIGH]) energy surplus groups to determine if skinfold thicknesses (ST), squat and bench one-repetition maximum (1-RM), or biceps brachii, triceps brachii, or quadriceps muscle thicknesses (MT) differed by group. COVID-19 reduced our sample, leaving 17 completers. Thus, in addition to Bayesian ANCOVA comparisons, we analyzed changes in body mass (BM) with ST, 1-RM, and MT changes via regression. We reported Bayes factors (BF10) indicating odds ratios of the relative likelihood of hypotheses (e.g., BF10 = 2 indicates the hypothesis is twice as likely as another) and coefficients of determination (R2) for regressions.

RESULTS

ANCOVAs provided no evidence supporting the group model for MT or squat 1-RM. However, moderate (BF10 = 9.9) and strong evidence (BF10 = 14.5) indicated HIGH increased bench 1-RM more than MOD and MAIN, respectively. Further, there was moderate evidence (BF10 = 4.2) HIGH increased ST more than MAIN and weak evidence (BF10 = 2.4) MOD increased ST more than MAIN. Regression provided strong evidence that BM change predicts ST change (BF10 = 14.3, R2 = 0.49) and weak evidence predicting biceps brachii MT change (BF10 = 1.4, R2 = 0.24).

CONCLUSIONS

While some group-based differences were found, our larger N regression provides the most generalizable evidence. Therefore, we conclude faster rates of BM gain (and by proxy larger surpluses) primarily increase rates of fat gain rather than augmenting 1-RM or MT. However, biceps brachii, the muscle which received the greatest stimulus in this study, may have been positively impacted by greater BM gain, albeit slightly. Our findings are limited to the confines of this study, where a group of lifters with mixed training experience performed moderate volumes 3 d/wk for 8 weeks. Thus, future work is needed to evaluate the relationship between BM gains, increases in ST and RT adaptations in other contexts.

Dietary Intake and Supplement Use in Competitive Women Bodybuilders

(1) Background: Women bodybuilders use extreme diets, dietary supplementation, and training regimes to sculpt their physiques. Women's participation in bodybuilding competitions has increased since the 1980s. Currently, studies on their dietary intake and supplement use are limited. Their dietary intake may be of poor quality and low in several micronutrients, while supplement use appears to be omnipresent. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine and compare the dietary intake, supplement use, and diet quality of in-season and off-season women bodybuilders. (2) Methods: In a cross-sectional design, we compared dietary intake, supplement use, and diet quality between seasons in women bodybuilders (n = 227). An online questionnaire was developed, validated, and administered to assess all non-dietary and supplement variables. The Automated Self-Administered 24 h Dietary Assessment Tool was used to collect four 24 h dietary recalls. The Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015) was used to calculate diet quality. The analysis of covariance and Welch's t-tests were used to assess the differences between in-season and off-season women bodybuilders' dietary intake, supplement, and HEI-2015 variables. (3) Results: In-season competitors reported consuming significantly less energy, carbohydrates, and fat but more protein than off-season competitors. All competitors consumed excess protein, while in-season competitors consumed excess fat and off-season competitors consumed less energy than the physique athlete nutrition recommendations. All competitors' micronutrient intakes were above the Dietary Reference Intakes. Supplements were used by all competitors, and the mean number used was similar between seasons. The HEI-2015 scores were not significantly different between seasons yet were below the US Dietary Guidelines for Americans. (4) Conclusion: Women bodybuilders would benefit from health education to achieve physique athlete nutrition recommendations, improve diet quality, and safe/efficacious supplement use to reach physique goals and improve overall health.

Bodybuilding Coaching Strategies Meet Evidence-Based Recommendations: A Qualitative Approach

Bodybuilding is a sport where coaches commonly recommend a variety of nutrition and exercise protocols, supplements, and, sometimes, performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs). The present study sought to gain an understanding of the common decisions and rationales employed by bodybuilding coaches. Focusing on coaches of the more muscular divisions in the National Physique Committee/IFBB Professional League federations (men's classic physique, men's bodybuilding, women's physique, women's bodybuilding) for both natural and enhanced athletes, coaches were recruited via word of mouth and social media, and 33 responded to an anonymous online survey. Survey responses indicated that participant coaches recommend three-to-seven meals per day and no less than 2 g/kg/day of protein regardless of sex, division, or PED usage. During contest preparation, participant coaches alter a natural competitor's protein intake by -25% to +10% and an enhanced competitor's protein intake by 0% to +25%. Regarding cardiovascular exercise protocols, approximately two-thirds of participant coaches recommend fasted cardiovascular exercise, with the common rationale of combining the exercise with thermogenic supplements while considering the athlete's preference. Low- and moderate-intensity steady state were the most commonly recommended types of cardiovascular exercise among participant coaches; high-intensity interval training was the least popular. Creatine was ranked in the top two supplements for all surveyed categories. Regarding PEDs, testosterone, growth hormone, and methenolone were consistently ranked in the top five recommended PEDs by participant coaches. The results of this study provide insight into common themes in the decisions made by bodybuilding coaches, and highlight areas in which more research is needed to empirically support those decisions.

Alterations in Measures of Body Composition, Neuromuscular Performance, Hormonal Levels, Physiological Adaptations, and Psychometric Outcomes during Preparation for Physique Competition: A Systematic Review of Case Studies

The present paper aimed to systematically review case studies on physique athletes to evaluate longitudinal changes in measures of body composition, neuromuscular performance, chronic hormonal levels, physiological adaptations, and psychometric outcomes during pre-contest preparation. We included studies that (1) were classified as case studies involving physique athletes during the pre-contest phase of their competitive cycle; (2) involved adults (18+ years of age) as participants; (3) were published in an English-language peer-reviewed journal; (4) had a pre-contest duration of at least 3 months; (5) reported changes across contest preparation relating to measures of body composition (fat mass, lean mass, and bone mineral density), neuromuscular performance (strength and power), chronic hormonal levels (testosterone, estrogen, cortisol, leptin, and ghrelin), physiological adaptations (maximal aerobic capacity, resting energy expenditure, heart rate, blood pressure, menstrual function, and sleep quality), and/or psychometric outcomes (mood states and food desire). Our review ultimately included 11 case studies comprising 15 ostensibly drug-free athletes (male = 8, female = 7) who competed in various physique-oriented divisions including bodybuilding, figure, and bikini. The results indicated marked alterations across the array of analyzed outcomes, sometimes with high inter-individual variability and divergent sex-specific responses. The complexities and implications of these findings are discussed herein.

Soda intake influences phenotype, antioxidants and inflammatory status in high protein-fed wistar rats

An increasing population of people, especially young adults who exercise, consume high protein diets along with carbonated drinks. While there are numerous studies on the effect of high protein diets, there is a need to understand how protein diets in combination with carbonated drinks impact physiology. In order to assess these effects on wistar rats' phenotype, antioxidants and inflammatory profiles, 64 wistar rats were divided into dietary groups of 8 male and 8 female animals each. The animals were fed standard diet as control (chow), chow and carbonated soda, a high protein diet (48.1% energy from protein) and a high protein diet with carbonated soda according to their groups. Body measurements, blood glucose levels, serum insulin levels, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant activity, adipokines and inflammatory markers concentrations were all determined. At the end of the study, body measurements, inflammatory markers and adipokine concentration were increased in animals fed the high protein diet and high protein-soda diet. There was a decrease in antioxidant and lipid peroxidation levels in protein fed male and female animals but those fed protein in combination with soda had increased lipid peroxidation levels. In conclusion, high protein diet in combination with carbonated soda impacts physiology differently from a high protein diet alone, and may stimulate weight gain, oxidative stress and HPD-related inflammation in Wistar rats.

Going Vegan for the Gain: A Cross-Sectional Study of Vegan Diets in Bodybuilders during Different Preparation Phases

Numerous athletes compete at a high level without consuming animal products; although a well-planned vegan diet might be appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, a few elements need to be addressed to build a balanced plant-based diet for an athlete, particularly in bodybuilding, in which muscle growth should be maximised, as athletes are judged on their aesthetics. In this observational study, nutritional intakes were compared in a cohort of natural omnivorous and vegan bodybuilders, during two different phases of preparation. To this end, 18 male and female bodybuilders (8 vegans and 10 omnivores) completed a food diary for 5 days during the bulking and cutting phases of their preparation. A mixed-model analysis was used to compare macro- and micronutrient intakes between the groups in the two phases. Both vegans and omnivores behaved similarly regarding energy, carbohydrate, and fat intakes, but vegans decreased their protein intake during the cutting phase. Our results suggest that vegan bodybuilders may find difficulties in reaching protein needs while undergoing a caloric deficit, and they might benefit from nutritional professionals' assistance to bridge the gap between the assumed proteins and those needed to maintain muscle mass through better nutrition and supplementation planning.

Dietary Intake, Serum Hormone Concentrations, Amenorrhea and Bone Mineral Density of Physique Athletes and Active Gym Enthusiasts

As the diet, hormones, amenorrhea, and bone mineral density (BMD) of physique athletes (PA) and gym enthusiasts (GE) are little-explored, we studied those in 69 females (50 PA, 19 GE) and 20 males (11 PA, 9 GE). Energy availability (EA, kcal·kgFFM−1·d−1 in DXA) in female and male PA was ~41.3 and ~37.2, and in GE ~39.4 and ~35.3, respectively. Low EA (LEA) was found in 10% and 26% of female PA and GE, respectively, and in 11% of male GE. In PA, daily protein intake (g/kg body mass) was ~2.9−3.0, whereas carbohydrate and fat intakes were ~3.6−4.3 and ~0.8−1.0, respectively. PA had higher protein and carbohydrate and lower fat intakes than GE (p < 0.05). Estradiol, testosterone, IGF-1, insulin, leptin, TSH, T4, T3, cortisol, or BMD did not differ between PA and GE. Serum IGF-1 and leptin were explained 6% and 7%, respectively, by EA. In non-users of hormonal contraceptives, amenorrhea was found only in PA (27%) and was associated with lower fat percentage, but not EA, BMD, or hormones. In conclusion, off-season dietary intakes, hormone levels, and BMD meet the recommendations in most of the PA and GE. Maintaining too-low body fat during the off-season may predispose to menstrual disturbances.

COVID-19 and athletes: Endurance sport and activity resilience study-CAESAR study

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic and imposed restrictions influenced athletic societies, although current knowledge about mild COVID-19 consequences on cardiopulmonary and physiologic parameters remains inconclusive. This study aimed to assess the impact of mild COVID-19 inflection on cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) performance among endurance athletes (EA) with varied fitness level. Materials and Methods: 49 EA (n_male = 43, n_female = 6, mean age = 39.94 ± 7.80 yr, height = 178.45 cm, weight = 76.62 kg; BMI = 24.03 kgm^-2) underwent double treadmill or cycle ergometer CPET and body analysis (BA) pre- and post-mild COVID-19 infection. Mild infection was defined as: (1) without hospitalization and (2) without prolonged health complications lasting for >14 days. Speed, power, heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (VO₂), pulmonary ventilation, blood lactate concentration (at the anaerobic threshold (AT)), respiratory compensation point (RCP), and maximum exertion were measured before and after COVID-19 infection. Pearson's and Spearman's r correlation coefficients and Student t-test were applied to assess relationship between physiologic or exercise variables and time. Results: The anthropometric measurements did not differ significantly before and after COVID-19. There was a significant reduction in VO₂ at the AT and RCP (both p < 0.001). Pre-COVID-19 VO₂ was 34.97 ± 6.43 ml kg·min^-1, 43.88 ± 7.31 ml kg·min^-1 and 47.81 ± 7.81 ml kg·min^-1 respectively for AT, RCP and maximal and post-COVID-19 VO₂ was 32.35 ± 5.93 ml kg·min^-1, 40.49 ± 6.63 ml kg·min^-1 and 44.97 ± 7.00 ml kg·min^-1 respectively for AT, RCP and maximal. Differences of HR at AT (p < 0.001) and RCP (p < 0.001) was observed. The HR before infection was 145.08 ± 10.82 bpm for AT and 168.78 ± 9.01 bpm for RCP and HR after infection was 141.12 ± 9.99 bpm for AT and 165.14 ± 9.74 bpm for RCP. Time-adjusted measures showed significance for body fat (r = 0.46, p < 0.001), fat mass (r = 0.33, p = 0.020), cycling power at the AT (r = -0.29, p = 0.045), and HR at RCP (r = -0.30, p = 0.036). Conclusion: A mild COVID-19 infection resulted in a decrease in EA's CPET performance. The most significant changes were observed for VO₂ and HR. Medical Professionals and Training Specialists should be aware of the consequences of a mild COVID-19 infection in order to recommend optimal therapeutic methods and properly adjust the intensity of training.

"Bulking and cutting" among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults

PURPOSE

First, to characterize the prevalence and incidence of "bulk" and "cut" cycles among Canadian adolescents and young adults. Second, to determine the associations between bulk and cut cycle engagement and drive for muscularity and eating disorder and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology.

METHODS

Data were from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors (2021; N = 2762), a national study of Canadian adolescents and young adults aged 16-30 years (M = 22.9, SD = 3.9). Prevalence and mean incidence of bulk and cut cycles in both the past 12 months and 30 days were estimated. Modified Poisson regressions were estimated to determine the associations between bulk and cut cycle engagement and levels of drive for muscularity and eating disorder and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology.

RESULTS

The sample comprised of 53.5% women, 38.4% men, and 8.1% transgender/gender non-conforming (TGNC) individuals. Nearly half (48.9%) of men and one in five women (21.2%) and TGNC (21.9%) participants reported bulk and cut cycles in the past 12 months. TGNC participants and women reported a greater mean number of bulk and cut cycles completed compared to men. Engagement in bulk and cut cycles was associated with stronger drive for muscularity across the sample, and more severe eating disorder and muscle dysmorphia psychopathology among men and women.

CONCLUSION

Findings underscore the common incidence and accompanying psychopathology of bulk and cut cycles among a community sample of adolescents and young adults in Canada, indicating the need for future research, as well as clinical and public health efforts.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

Dead Bodybuilders Speaking from the Heart: An Analysis of Autopsy Reports of Bodybuilders That Died Prematurely

This study analyzed publicly available autopsy reports of male bodybuilders under the age of 50 who reportedly died from cardiovascular-related events. A general Google search with the terms "dead bodybuilders" was performed on 10 February 2022. Six reports were available for review and analysis. Bodybuilders had the following means: age (±SD) = 36 ± 7.1 years; height 1.82 ± 0.02 m; weight = 103.8 ± 5.3 kg; weight of heart = 575 ± 134.4 g; and left ventricular myocardium thickness (n = 3) = 16.3 ± 3.5 mm. The bodybuilders analyzed had a mean heart weight that is 73.7% heavier than the reference man (575 g vs. 332 g). Similarly, 100% of the autopsies reported left ventricular myocardium thickness of 16.3 ± 3.5 mm; this is 125% thicker than normative data for men. While abuse of AASs for prolonged periods of time may contribute to some of the cardiac abnormalities present in these bodybuilders, it should be noted that cardiac hypertrophy, including left ventricular hypertrophy, has also been reported in drug-free strength athletes. Each autopsy report included cardiovascular abnormalities within the cause of death. Association does not mean causation, but nonetheless bodybuilders should be aware of potential contributing cardiovascular risks with AAS abuse.

Effects of the Ketogenic Diet on Muscle Hypertrophy in Resistance-Trained Men and Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Reviews focused on the ketogenic diet (KD) based on the increase in fat-free mass (FFM) have been carried out with pathological populations or, failing that, without population differentiation. The aim of this review and meta-analysis was to verify whether a ketogenic diet without programmed energy restriction generates increases in fat-free mass (FFM) in resistance-trained participants. We evaluated the effect of the ketogenic diet, in conjunction with resistance training, on fat-free mass in trained participants. Boolean algorithms from various databases (PubMed, Scopus. and Web of Science) were used, and a total of five studies were located that related to both ketogenic diets and resistance-trained participants. In all, 111 athletes or resistance-trained participants (87 male and 24 female) were evaluated in the studies analyzed. We found no significant differences between groups in the FFM variables, and more research is needed to perform studies with similar ketogenic diets and control diet interventions. Ketogenic diets, taking into account the possible side effects, can be an alternative for increasing muscle mass as long as energy surplus is generated; however, their application for eight weeks or more without interruption does not seem to be the best option due to the satiety and lack of adherence generated.

Self-Reported Training and Supplementation Practices Between Performance-Enhancing Drug-User Bodybuilders Compared with Natural Bodybuilders

ABSTRACT

Li, J, Davies, TB, and Hackett, DA. Self-reported training and supplementation practices between performance-enhancing drug-user bodybuilders compared with natural bodybuilders. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-This study aimed to examine whether the training and supplementation practices differ between performance-enhancing drug (PED)-using bodybuilders (BB) and natural BB. One hundred eighty-seven competitive male bodybuilders with a median age of 27.0 years completed an online survey. Of this sample, 40 respondents reported using PED (PED-user) and 147 respondents reported to be natural. Compared with natural BB, PED-user BB reported greater off-season body weight (p < 0.001) and weight loss before a competition (p < 0.001). In the off-season, PED-user BB performed a greater number of exercises per muscle group (p < 0.001), number of repetition maximum (RM) per set (p < 0.01), and less recovery between the sets (p < 0.01). During the precompetition phase, the natural BB increased their number of RM; however, the PED-user BB still reported using a greater number of RM per set (p = 0.02), exercises per muscle group (p < 0.001), and less recovery time between the sets (p < 0.01). Both the PED-user BB and natural BB reported greater aerobic exercise frequency (p < 0.001) and session duration (p < 0.001), although PED-user BB performed a greater number of aerobic exercise sessions (p = 0.04) and at a higher intensity (p < 0.01). Advanced training techniques, including negatives, partial repetitions, preexhaustion sets, and timed repetitions, were more popular among PED-user BB (p < 0.05). Creatine monohydrate usage was more popular among natural BB (p < 0.001), whereas branched-chain and essential amino acids were more popular among PED-user BB (p ≤ 0.001). Findings suggest that PED-user BB perform more metabolically demanding resistance training sessions, more strenuous aerobic training during the precompetition phase, and may have different supplementation preferences compared with natural BB.

Analysis of the Nutritional Value of the Diets Presented in Women's and Sports Magazines before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic

For consumers, among the most important sources of information related to nutrition are popular journals and magazines, including women’s and sports, but the diets presented there may lead to unhealthy weight-control behaviors. The aim of the study was to assess the nutritional value of regular and low-calorie diets presented in Polish women’s and sports magazines before and during COVID-19 pandemic. The study was based on two popular Polish magazines—one women’s magazine and one sports magazine, which regularly present various types of diets. The nutritional value of all the diets published from January 2014 to May 2022 was analyzed. The total number of included single-day menus was n = 119, while for analysis they were stratified based on: type of magazine (published in the women’s magazine n = 41 and in the sports magazine n = 78), year of publication (before the COVID-19 pandemic n = 78 and during n = 41), and type of diet (regular n = 61 and low-calorie n = 58). The analysis included the energy value and nutritional value. For the type of magazine, the diets published in the sports magazine were characterized by a higher intake of fat (p < 0.0001 for intake in grams and in % of energy) and calcium (p = 0.0330), whereas the diets published in the women’s magazine were characterized by a higher intake of carbohydrates (p = 0.0226 for intake in grams, and p = 0.0002 for intake in % of energy) and fiber (p = 0.0163). For the year of publication, the diets published during the COVID-19 pandemic were characterized by a higher intake of protein (p = 0.0166 for intake in grams), sodium (p = 0.0465), calcium (p < 0.0001), vitamin D (p = 0.0197), vitamin B6 (p = 0.0207), and vitamin B12 (p = 0.0277), whereas the diets published before the COVID-19 pandemic were characterized by a higher intake of carbohydrates (p = 0.0243 for intake in % of energy). For the type of diet, the regular diets were characterized by a higher energy value (p = 0.0020), as well as by a higher intake of fat (p = 0.0162 for intake in grams), carbohydrates (p = 0.0390 for intake in grams), mono- and oligosaccharides (p = 0.0084 for intake in % of energy), fiber (p < 0.0001), magnesium (p = 0.0323), iron (p = 0.0307), and vitamin B6 (p = 0.0204). The nutritional value of the diets presented in the Polish women’s and sports magazines was not justified by the type of magazine or type of diet, associated with the target group, which may cause the following of improperly balanced diets. However, the changes in the typical nutritional value of diets presented in the Polish women’s and sports magazines during the COVID-19 pandemic were justified by some specific needs for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19.

After the spotlight: are evidence-based recommendations for refeeding post-contest energy restriction available for physique athletes? A scoping review

BACKGROUND

To date, there is limited consensus on post-contest recovery recommendations for natural physique athletes. The available literature emphasizes the negative consequences of extreme dieting associated with physique contests, yet offers only speculative suggestions to facilitate physiological recovery post-contest. This scoping review evaluates evidence-based recommendations for recovery in post-physique contests.

METHODS

The online search engines and databases Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus were searched systematically and 12 peer reviewed journal articles were included in the review.

RESULTS

Six key factors were identified that directly impacted on physiological recovery post-contest: (1) body composition, (2) recovery dietary intake, (3) resting metabolic rate (RMR) restoration, (4) endocrine measures recovery, (5) menstrual cycle recovery, and (6) psychological aspects of recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

Three dietary strategies have been proposed to facilitate physiological recovery post-contest while bearing in mind body composition and future athlete outcomes; (1) a gradual increase in energy intake to maintenance requirements, (2) ad libitum eating, (3) an immediate return to maintenance energy requirements. Future research is required to determine the timeline in which full physiological recovery occurs post-contest and which strategies best support athlete health and performance during post-contest recovery.

Can Bodybuilding Peak Week Manipulations Favorably Affect Muscle Size, Subcutaneous Thickness, and Related Body Composition Variables? A Case Study

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this case study was to implement an evidence-based dietary approach to peaking for a bodybuilding competition and monitor its impact on body composition, muscle thickness (MT), intra-to-extra-cellular fluid shifts, subcutaneous thickness (ST), and hydration status. Secondarily, to document any adverse events of this peak week approach in a small, controlled setting. Methods Dietary practices were recorded, and laboratory testing was conducted throughout peak week, including competition morning. Assessments included: dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) for body composition, B-mode ultrasound for MT and ST, bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) for total body water (TBW)/intracellular water (ICW)/extracellular water (ECW), and raw BIS data (i.e., resistance, reactance, and phase angle), urine specific gravity (USG) for hydration status, and subjective fullness. Sequential dietary manipulations were made (i.e., CHO depletion/fat loading, CHO/water loading, and a refinement phase) with specific physiological goals. This was reflected in changes observed across all assessments throughout the peak week.

RESULTS

From the carbohydrate-depleted state (three days out) to competition day, we observed increases in lean body mass, MT, TBW (primarily ICW), and subjective fullness. Kendall's Tau B revealed a strong relationship between carbohydrate intake and ∑MT (τ = 0.733, p = 0.056). Additionally, novel ST data demonstrated a 10% reduction for the summation of all seven sites, with some drastic changes in specific regions (e.g., -43% for triceps ST) from three days out to competition day.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that the prototypical goals of bodybuilders' peak week (i.e., increasing muscle fullness, decreasing subcutaneous thickness) to enhance their aesthetics/muscularity presented can be achieved with a drug-free protocol involving dietary manipulations.

Effects of Multi-Ingredient Pre-Workout Supplement and Caffeine on Bench Press Performance: A Single-Blind Cross-Over Study

The problem addressed in this study is the appropriateness of using different pre-training supplementation strategies and their ability to improve training performance and psychological measures. The aim of the study is the evaluation of the effectiveness of a multi-ingredient pre-workout supplement (MIPS) containing beta-alanine, L-citrulline malate, arginine alpha-ketoglutarate, L-taurine, L-tyrosine and caffeine compared to an exact dosage of anhydrous caffeine in bench press strength endurance, feeling scale (FS), felt arousal scale (FAS) and session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE). A group of fifteen resistance-trained males, weighing 83.92 ± 8.95 kg and having an average of 5.6 ± 3.38 years of training experience, tested their bench press 10 repetition maximum (79.01 ± 12.13). In a cross-over manner, they participated in two sessions where they were blinded to the order of supplementation they were given: either a MIPS including caffeine or caffeine alone. They completed the bench press strength endurance test with pre- and post-training psychological assessments containing FS, FAS and sRPE. Bench press repetition volume was greater after anhydrous caffeine than MIPS supplementation with no difference in psychological measures. These results indicate that MIPS supplementation is less ergogenic and cost effective than caffeine alone.

Nutritional and Non-Nutritional Strategies in Bodybuilding: Impact on Kidney Function

Bodybuilders routinely engage in many dietary and other practices purported to be harmful to kidney health. The development of acute kidney injury, focal segmental glomerular sclerosis (FSGS) and nephrocalcinosis may be particular risks. There is little evidence that high-protein diets and moderate creatine supplementation pose risks to individuals with normal kidney function though long-term high protein intake in those with underlying impairment of kidney function is inadvisable. The links between anabolic androgenic steroid use and FSGS are stronger, and there are undoubted dangers of nephrocalcinosis in those taking high doses of vitamins A, D and E. Dehydrating practices, including diuretic misuse, and NSAID use also carry potential risks. It is difficult to predict the effects of multiple practices carried out in concert. Investigations into subclinical kidney damage associated with these practices have rarely been undertaken. Future research is warranted to identify the clinical and subclinical harm associated with individual practices and combinations to enable appropriate and timely advice.

Revisiting glomerular hyperfiltration and examining the concept of high dietary protein-related nephropathy in athletes and bodybuilders

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

High-protein diets (HPDs) are popular but their consequences for kidney health, especially among athletes and bodybuilders who typically maintain a high protein intake for a long time, have not been investigated. This review focused on recent studies of the association of HPD with long-term kidney health and the concept of high dietary protein-related nephropathy.

RECENT FINDINGS

Several long-term observational studies including large populations have reinforced the notion that HPDs are associated with a rapid decline of kidney function. An increase in renal blood flow and glomerular hyperfiltration caused by vasodilation, and increased levels of endocrine and paracrine factors (glucagon, IGF-1, prostanoids, and nitric oxide), facilitates the excretion of protein-derived nitrogenous waste. Inhibition of tubule-glomerular feedback and increased proximal tubular Na+ reabsorption after a HPD augment glomerular hyperfiltration and may trigger synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines and receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE). Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis reported in association with anabolic steroid may indeed be a HPD nephropathy given that HPD results in progressive glomerulosclerosis, especially in remnant glomeruli or in diabetic kidney disease but can happen in any high-risk situation, such as solitary kidney and polycystic kidneys.

SUMMARY

HPD among athletes and bodybuilders in an extreme way across a long-term period may pose a risk to renal health including high incidence of HPD nephropathy.

A Comparative Study of Selected Gut Bacteria Abundance and Fecal pH in Bodybuilders Eating High-Protein Diet and More Sedentary Controls

Bodybuilders tend to overeat their daily protein needs. The purpose of a high-protein diet is to support post-workout recovery and skeletal muscle growth; however, its exact impact on gut microbiota still remains under investigation. The aim of this study was to assess the differences in selected gut bacteria (Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Akkermansia muciniphila, Bifidobacterium spp., and Bacteroides spp.) abundance and fecal pH between the group of amateur bodybuilders and more sedentary control group. In total, 26 young healthy men took part in the study, and their daily nutrients intake was measured using a dietary interview. Real-time PCR was used to assess the stool bacteria abundance. Both groups reported fiber intake within the recommended range, but bodybuilders consumed significantly more protein (33.6% ± 6.5% vs. 22% ± 6.3%) and less fat (27.6% ± 18.9% vs. 36.4% ± 10%) than controls. Study results showed no significant differences in terms of selected intestinal bacteria colony forming unit counts. Significantly higher fecal pH in the bodybuilders’ fecal samples was observed in comparison to the control group 6.9 ± 0.7 vs. 6.2 ± 0.7. Gut microbiota composition similarities could be a result of appropriate fiber intake in both groups.

Sports Nutrition: Diets, Selection Factors, Recommendations

An athlete’s diet is influenced by external and internal factors that can reduce or exacerbate exercise-induced food intolerance/allergy symptoms. This review highlights many factors that influence food choices. However, it is important to remember that these food choices are dynamic, and their effectiveness varies with the time, location, and environmental factors in which the athlete chooses the food. Therefore, before training and competition, athletes should follow the recommendations of physicians and nutritionists. It is important to study and understand the nutritional strategies and trends that athletes use before and during training or competitions. This will identify future clinical trials that can be conducted to identify specific foods that athletes can consume to minimize negative symptoms associated with their consumption and optimize training outcomes.

Achieving an Optimal Fat Loss Phase in Resistance-Trained Athletes: A Narrative Review

Managing the body composition of athletes is a common practice in the field of sports nutrition. The loss of body weight (BW) in resistance-trained athletes is mainly conducted for aesthetic reasons (bodybuilding) or performance (powerlifting or weightlifting). The aim of this review is to provide dietary–nutritional strategies for the loss of fat mass in resistance-trained athletes. During the weight loss phase, the goal is to reduce the fat mass by maximizing the retention of fat-free mass. In this narrative review, the scientific literature is evaluated, and dietary–nutritional and supplementation recommendations for the weight loss phase of resistance-trained athletes are provided. Caloric intake should be set based on a target BW loss of 0.5–1.0%/week to maximize fat-free mass retention. Protein intake (2.2–3.0 g/kgBW/day) should be distributed throughout the day (3–6 meals), ensuring in each meal an adequate amount of protein (0.40–0.55 g/kgBW/meal) and including a meal within 2–3 h before and after training. Carbohydrate intake should be adapted to the level of activity of the athlete in order to training performance (2–5 g/kgBW/day). Caffeine (3–6 mg/kgBW/day) and creatine monohydrate (3–5 g/day) could be incorporated into the athlete’s diet due to their ergogenic effects in relation to resistance training. The intake of micronutrients complexes should be limited to special situations in which there is a real deficiency, and the athlete cannot consume through their diet.

Nutrition, supplementation and weight reduction in combat sports: a review

Nutrition is the aspect closely connected to physical activity and may affect body composition, sports performance and post-workout regeneration. Using an appropriate diet plan is a proven method to optimize performance improvements in combat sports. In the majority of combat sports athletes are classified according to their body mass in order to minimize differences between competitors. Many athletes induce weight loss in order to gain an advantage over their opponents. The review was undertaken to provide safe, evidence-based protocols helping athletes in weight reduction without negative effects on sports performance. The nutritional requirements for combat sports athletes, sports supplements, gradual and rapid weight reduction strategies are discussed in this review.

A Case Study of an 87-Year-Old Male Bodybuilder with Complex Health Conditions

This exploratory clinical case report presents an 87-year-old man who began bodybuilding at the age of 76 years and was officially recognised as the world’s oldest competitive bodybuilder, competing until age 83. He has a background of complex health conditions including polio, strokes, cardiac arrest, atrial fibrillation, prostate disease, osteoarthritis, depression, bowel obstruction, reflux, and bladder cancer. Assessments of body composition, bone density, muscle performance, and diet-related practices were performed. The bodybuilder had superior fat-free mass, lower fat mass, and generally greater muscle performance compared to untrained healthy males of a similar age. Commencement of bodybuilding in older age appears to be possible, even with ongoing complex health conditions, and the potential benefits of this practice require systematic investigation in the future.

Mitochondrial bioenergetic pathways in blood leukocyte transcriptome decrease after intensive weight loss but are rescued following weight regain in female physique athletes

Prolonged periods of energy deficit leading to weight loss induce metabolic adaptations resulting in reduced energy expenditure, but the mechanisms for energy conservation are incompletely understood. We examined 42 healthy athletic females (age 27.5 ± 4.0 years, body mass index 23.4 ± 1.7 kg/m² ) who volunteered into either a group dieting for physique competition (n = 25) or a control group (n = 17). The diet group substantially reduced their energy intake and moderately increased exercise levels to induce loss of fat mass that was regained during a voluntary weight regain period. The control group maintained their typical lifestyle habits and body mass as instructed. From the diet group, fasting blood samples were drawn at baseline (PRE), after 4- to 5-month weight loss (PRE-MID), and after 4- to 5-month weight regain (MID-POST) as well as from the control group at similar intervals. Blood was analyzed to determine leukocyte transcriptome by RNA-Sequencing and serum metabolome by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) platform. The intensive weight loss period induced several metabolic adaptations, including a prominent suppression of transcriptomic signature for mitochondrial OXPHOS and ribosome biogenesis. The upstream regulator analysis suggested that this reprogramming of cellular energy metabolism may be mediated via AMPK/PGC1-α signaling and mTOR/eIF2 signaling-dependent pathways. Our findings show for the first time that prolonged energy deprivation induced modulation of mitochondrial metabolism can be observed through minimally invasive measures of leukocyte transcriptome and serum metabolome at systemic level, suggesting that adaptation to energy deficit is broader in humans than previously thought.

Effects of Two Months of Very Low Carbohydrate Ketogenic Diet on Body Composition, Muscle Strength, Muscle Area, and Blood Parameters in Competitive Natural Body Builders

Background: Ketogenic diet (KD) is a nutritional approach that restricts daily carbohydrates, replacing most of the reduced energy with fat, while maintaining an adequate quantity of protein. Despite the widespread use of KD in weight loss in athletes, there are still many concerns about its use in sports requiring muscle mass accrual. Thus, the present study sought to investigate the influence of a KD in competitive natural body builders. Methods: Nineteen volunteers (27.4 ± 10.5 years) were randomly assigned to ketogenic diet (KD) or to a western diet (WD). Body composition, muscle strength and basal metabolic rate were measured before and after two months of intervention. Standard blood biochemistry, testosterone, IGF-1, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and inflammatory cytokines (IL6, IL1β, TNFα) were also measured. Results: Body fat significantly decreased in KD (p = 0.030); whilst lean mass increased significantly only in WD (p < 0.001). Maximal strength increased similarly in both groups. KD showed a significant decrease of blood triglycerides (p < 0.001), glucose (p = 0.001), insulin (p < 0.001) and inflammatory cytokines compared to WD whilst BDNF increased in both groups with significant greater changes in KD (p < 0.001). Conclusions: KD may be used during body building preparation for health and leaning purposes but with the caution that hypertrophic muscle response could be blunted.

Health aspects of active bodybuilders: monitoring by multidisciplinary team

ABSTRACT Preparation in bodybuilding involves high-intensity workouts and drastic feeding strategies. Little is known about health risks. Athletes (n=510, 59.8% male) were evaluated about health aspects, anthropometry, and blood pressure (BP). Chronic diseases were reported by 6,6%, but 88.9% of them did not treat; 1.9% reported hypertension, with 15.7% having high BP; and 52.5% reported the use of prohibited drugs in the last 6 months. Body mass index was 26.2±2.5 for man and 22.3±2.2 Kg/m2 for woman. Men had lower monitoring than women by physical education professionals, nutritionists, and physicians (p<0.01). Athletes are exposed to health risks factors such as lack of knowledge about diseases, high use of prohibited substances and less monitoring by professionals among men.

Case Study: Body Composition Changes Resulting from a Nutritional Intervention on a Professional Vegan Powerlifter

Powerlifting is a weight-class strength sport where achieving low fat mass (FM) and high fat-free mass (FFM) is desirable to improve performance. Recent studies have evaluated the nutritional considerations of different eating patterns, such as vegan diets (VD), in athlete populations. VD are a challenge for athletes who want to attain body composition changes. The aim of this case study is to report on the body composition changes and subjective feelings of a male professional vegan powerlifter following VD for six weeks. The body mass of the powerlifter decreased from 79.3 to 77.4 kg (2.39%). Along with this, FM decreased from 15.0 to 11.4 kg (24%). Conversely, FFM increased from 64.3 to 66.0 kg (2.64%). Moreover, the powerlifter communicated no subjective feelings of low energy availability during training sessions. The VD might compromise adherence in a nutritional intervention which aims to improve body composition due to the nutritional requirements for fat loss. Therefore, more appropriate health assessments, including blood and psychological tests, are required for professional athletes. This short-term VD intervention was satisfactory for improving body composition and no adverse outcomes were reported.

Evaluation of Protein Content in the Diet of Amateur Male Bodybuilder

Public gyms and fitness clubs promote active lifestyles. At the same time, numerous nutritional errors and the phenomenon of incorrect supplementation are being observed among the given study group. Behavior can lead to malaise, injury, or lack of progression. One of the most serious mistakes is the incorrect level of protein in the diet. The aim of the study is to assess the quantity and quality of protein consumed by men undertaking recreational strength training in Szczecin. The study involved 35 men aged 18-35, practicing amateur strength training, from Szczecin (Poland). The author's questionnaire collected information on supplementation, physical activity, and subjective assessment of nutritional knowledge. The obtained test results were subjected to statistical analysis performed in the Statistica12 program. On average, respondents consumed 1.8 g of protein/kg, with the highest recorded conversion rate of 3.7 g of protein/kg of body weight, and the lowest of 0.9 g/kg of body weight. Total protein consumption ranged from 70.2 to 295.7 g, and the average value was 147.8 g (22%), which differs from the study group, that is, 129-133 g, which gives 14% energy proteins. It was found that the protein supplementation, on average, provided 31% of the total protein intake of the study group. The results show inappropriate dietary behavior regarding food supplementation among the examined group. Further education on the nutritional value of the food and a healthy and balanced diet is being recommended for the individuals practicing strength sports.

Physiological, Psychological and Performance-Related Changes Following Physique Competition: A Case-Series

The purpose of this case-series was to evaluate the physiological, psychological and performance-related changes that occur during the postcompetition period. Participants included three male (34.3 ± 6.8 years, 181.6 ± 8.9 cm) and four female (29.3 ± 4.9 years, 161.4 ± 6.0 cm) natural physique athletes. Body composition (fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM); Skinfold), resting metabolic rate (RMR; indirect calorimetry), total body water (TBW; bioelectrical impedance analysis), sleep quality (PSQI; Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index), quality of life measures (RAND SF36), menstrual irregularities, and knee extension performance were assessed 1-2 weeks prior to competition, and 4 weeks and 8-10 weeks postcompetition. Blood hormones (free triiodothyronine; T₃, free thyroxine; T₄, and leptin) were assessed at 1-2 weeks prior to competition and 8-10 weeks postcompetition. Participants tracked daily macronutrient intake daily for the duration of the study. Group-level data were analyzed using exploratory, one-tailed, nonparametric statistical tests. Bodyweight, FM, bodyfat%, RMR, and blood hormones (T₃, T₄, and leptin) increased significantly (p < 0.05) at the group level. Relative (%Δ) increases in fat mass were associated with △RMR (τ = 0.90; p = 0.001) and △leptin (τ = 0.68; p = 0.02), and △leptin was associated with △RMR (τ = 0.59; p = 0.03). The time course for recovery appears to vary substantially between individuals potentially due to strategies implemented postcompetition.

Dental occlusion and sport performance

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, interest has been given to the relationship between dental occlusion and athletes' performance. A correct occlusion allows for a correct position of the mandible in space and could be reached by wearing a splint made by a dentist. Achieving this condition appears to be an advantage for all athletes, and especially for those who have TMJ dysfunction. The purpose of the study was to investigate the hypothesis and common belief that correcting the occlusion or the use of a splint could improve an athlete's performance.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

A search on electronic database has been performed and obtained 141 results; then, following the application of the inclusion criteria, only 11 articles were selected.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

A good occlusion seems to be an advantage for the athletes.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of an occlusal splint should be evaluated in different sports, because the occlusion and TMJ conditions of the athletes are different and the efforts in which they are subjected could not be generalized because the sports have various rules and characteristics that involves the stomatognathic system differently.

Nutritional Recommendations for Physique Athletes

The popularity of physique sports is increasing, yet there are currently few comprehensive nutritional guidelines for these athletes. Physique sport now encompasses more than just a short phase before competition and offseason guidelines have recently been published. Therefore, the goal of this review is to provide an extensive guide for male and female physique athletes in the contest preparation and recovery period. As optimal protein intake is largely related to one’s skeletal muscle mass, current evidence supports a range of 1.8-2.7 g/kg. Furthermore, as a benefit from having adequate carbohydrate to fuel performance and activity, low-end fat intake during contest preparation of 10-25% of calories allows for what calories remain in the “energy budget” to come from carbohydrate to mitigate the negative impact of energy restriction and weight loss on training performance. For nutrient timing, we recommend consuming four or five protein boluses per day with one consumed near training and one prior to sleep. During competition periods, slower rates of weight loss (≤0.5% of body mass per week) are preferable for attenuating the loss of fat-free mass with the use of intermittent energy restriction strategies, such as diet breaks and refeeds, being possibly beneficial. Additionally, physiological and psychological factors are covered, and potential best-practice guidelines are provided for disordered eating and body image concerns since physique athletes present with higher incidences of these issues, which may be potentially exacerbated by certain traditional physique practices. We also review common peaking practices, and the critical transition to the post-competition period.

Thermotolerance of Broiler Chicks Ingesting Dietary Betaine and/or Creatine

The present study aimed to assess the effect of dietary betaine (B) and/or creatine (C) on performance and thermoregulatory responses of broiler chicks. Indian River broiler chicks, fitted with compact thermosensors, were reared to market age (five weeks). The chicks were randomly distributed into four treatment groups, in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments-basal control diet (Control group: CONT; B-/C-); 1 g betaine/kg feed (Betaine group: BETA; B+/C-), 1.2 g creatine monohydrate/kg feed (Creatine group: CRET; B-/C+), and combination (Betaine and Creatine group: COMB; B+/C+) of both supplements. At 31 days of age, 20 chicks from each group were exposed to acute heat stress (A-HS) for 3 h (34.45 ± 0.20 °C), and hemogramic profiles were screened before and after. Performance parameters (feed intake, body weight gain, and feed conversion ratio) were reported on a weekly basis, and carcass meat quality was evaluated at the end of experiment. Redness of breast was higher due to B and C treatments separately than the CONT group (B by C interaction; p < 0.05). Compared to the CONT, dietary supplements alleviated hyperthermia responses, with B alone being more efficient than C or COMB treatments. The mitigation of hyperthermia is likely mediated by enhancement of water balance indicators. Although not efficient in improving growth performance, dietary B and/or C are efficient in improving thermophysiological performance and survival of finishing broiler chicks under A-HS.