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Drobac Backović D, Tokodi N. Cyanotoxins in food: Exposure assessment and health impact. Food Res Int 2024; 184:114271. [PMID: 38609248 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
The intricate nature of cyanotoxin exposure through food reveals a complex web of risks and uncertainties in our dietary choices. With the aim of starting to unravel this intricate nexus, a comprehensive review of 111 papers from the past two decades investigating cyanotoxin contamination in food was undertaken. It revealed a widespread occurrence of cyanotoxins in diverse food sources across 31 countries. Notably, 68% of the studies reported microcystin concentrations exceeding established Tolerable Daily Intake levels. Cyanotoxins were detected in muscles of many fish species, and while herbivorous fish exhibited the highest recorded concentration, omnivorous species displayed a higher propensity for cyanotoxin accumulation, exemplified by Oreochromis niloticus. Beyond fish, crustaceans and bivalves emerged as potent cyanotoxin accumulators. Gaps persist regarding contamination of terrestrial and exotic animals and their products, necessitating further exploration. Plant contamination under natural conditions remains underreported, yet evidence underscores irrigation-driven cyanotoxin accumulation, particularly affecting leafy vegetables. Finally, cyanobacterial-based food supplements often harbored cyanotoxins (57 % of samples were positive) warranting heightened scrutiny, especially for Aphanizomenon flos-aquae-based products. Uncertainties surround precise concentrations due to methodological variations (chemical and biochemical) and extraction limitations, along with the enigmatic fate of toxins during storage, processing, and digestion. Nonetheless, potential health consequences of cyanotoxin exposure via contaminated food include gastrointestinal and neurological disorders, organ damage (e.g. liver, kidneys, muscles), and even elevated cancer risks. While microcystins received significant attention, knowledge gaps persist regarding other cyanotoxins' accumulation, exposure, and effects, as well as combined exposure via multiple pathways. Intriguing and complex, cyanotoxin exposure through food beckons further research for our safer and healthier diets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damjana Drobac Backović
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia
| | - Nada Tokodi
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, Novi Sad 21000, Serbia; Jagiellonian University, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Laboratory of Metabolomics, Gronostajowa 7, Krakow 30387, Poland.
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Mutoti MI, Jideani AI, Madala NE, Gumbo JR. The occurrence and human health risk assessment of microcystins in diverse food matrixes during production. Heliyon 2024; 10:e29882. [PMID: 38681651 PMCID: PMC11053293 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Globally, the presence of cyanotoxins in water supplies and food has been widely investigated for over a decade. Cyanotoxins are harmful metabolites produced by toxic cyanobacterial genera. These metabolites belong to diverse chemical classes, with a variety of physicochemical properties, chemical structures, and toxic activities. The present study seeks to investigate the occurrence of cyanotoxins in water supplies destined for food processing and assess the human health risk from exposure to cyanotoxins. To achieve this, a simple, sensitive, and reliable analytical method was developed for the determination of microcystins (MC-RR, MC-LR, MC-YR) in process water, raw maize meal, and cooked maize (porridge) at ppb (parts per billion) levels. These compounds were extracted using Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) with optimized parameters; thereafter, Liquid Chromatography-tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used for the rapid determination of the analytes selected for the present study. The method developed was applied to samples collected from the meal grinding station located in Mawoni village in South Africa; and was able to detect and quantify all the target cyanotoxins. MC-LR, MC-YR and MC-RR were detected at concentrations ranging from 10 to 11.2 μg/L, 9.1-9.4 μg/L, and 2.3-3.5 μg/L, in water samples, respectively. However, MC-YR was not detected in ground water sample. Moreover, MC-LR, MC-YR, and MC-RR concentrations in maize and porridge samples ranged between 9.2 and 11.2, 5.5-8.6, and 6.3-9.3 μg/kg dry weight, respectively. The hazard quotient index (HQi) levels found in the present study ranged between 2.2 - 8.4 and 0.11-8.9 for adults and children, respectively, representing potential risks to human health. Findings from LC-MS/MS reveal that cyanotoxins can be transferred from water to food during food processing using cyanotoxins contaminated water. Furthermore, the methods developed can be used by environmental and health agencies to strengthen the monitoring of cyanotoxins in water and food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mulalo I. Mutoti
- Department of Environmental, Water, and Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, 0083, South Africa
| | - Afam I.O. Jideani
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou, 0950, South Africa
| | - Ntakadzeni E. Madala
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou, 0950, South Africa
| | - Jabulani R. Gumbo
- Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Private Bag X5050, Thohoyandou, 0950, South Africa
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Dirks C, Cappelli P, Blomqvist M, Ekroth S, Johansson M, Persson M, Drakare S, Pekar H, Zuberovic Muratovic A. Cyanotoxin Occurrence and Diversity in 98 Cyanobacterial Blooms from Swedish Lakes and the Baltic Sea. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:199. [PMID: 38786590 PMCID: PMC11123207 DOI: 10.3390/md22050199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The Drinking Water Directive (EU) 2020/2184 includes the parameter microcystin LR, a cyanotoxin, which drinking water producers need to analyze if the water source has potential for cyanobacterial blooms. In light of the increasing occurrences of cyanobacterial blooms worldwide and given that more than 50 percent of the drinking water in Sweden is produced from surface water, both fresh and brackish, the need for improved knowledge about cyanotoxin occurrence and cyanobacterial diversity has increased. In this study, a total of 98 cyanobacterial blooms were sampled in 2016-2017 and identified based on their toxin production and taxonomical compositions. The surface water samples from freshwater lakes throughout Sweden including brackish water from eight east coast locations along the Baltic Sea were analyzed for their toxin content with LC-MS/MS and taxonomic composition with 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Both the extracellular and the total toxin content were analyzed. Microcystin's prevalence was highest with presence in 82% of blooms, of which as a free toxin in 39% of blooms. Saxitoxins were found in 36% of blooms in which the congener decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX) was detected for the first time in Swedish surface waters at four sampling sites. Anatoxins were most rarely detected, followed by cylindrospermopsin, which were found in 6% and 10% of samples, respectively. As expected, nodularin was detected in samples collected from the Baltic Sea only. The cyanobacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) with the highest abundance and prevalence could be annotated to Aphanizomenon NIES-81 and the second most profuse cyanobacterial taxon to Microcystis PCC 7914. In addition, two correlations were found, one between Aphanizomenon NIES-81 and saxitoxins and another between Microcystis PCC 7914 and microcystins. This study is of value to drinking water management and scientists involved in recognizing and controlling toxic cyanobacteria blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Dirks
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, P.O. Box 230, 6700AE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Paolo Cappelli
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Maria Blomqvist
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Susanne Ekroth
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Malin Johansson
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Max Persson
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Stina Drakare
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O. Box 7050, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Heidi Pekar
- Swedish Food Agency, P.O. Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
- Stockholm Vatten och Avfall, Bryggerivägen 10, SE-106 36 Stockholm, Sweden
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Pham ML, Maghsoomi S, Brandl M. An Electrochemical Aptasensor for the Detection of Freshwater Cyanobacteria. BIOSENSORS 2024; 14:28. [PMID: 38248405 PMCID: PMC10813013 DOI: 10.3390/bios14010028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Aphanizomenon is a genus of cyanobacteria that is filamentous and nitrogen-fixing and inhabits aquatic environments. This genus is known as one of the major producers of cyanotoxins that can affect water quality after the bloom period. In this study, an electrochemical aptasensor is demonstrated using a specific aptamer to detect Aphanizomenon sp. ULC602 for the rapid and sensitive detection of this bacterium. The principal operation of the generated aptasensor is based on the conformational change in the aptamer attached to the electrode surface in the presence of the target bacterium, resulting in a decrease in the current peak, which is measured by square-wave voltammetry (SWV). This aptasensor has a limit of detection (LOD) of OD750~0.3, with an extension to OD750~1.2 and a sensitivity of 456.8 μA·OD750-1·cm-2 without interference from other cyanobacteria. This is the first aptasensor studied that provides rapid detection to monitor the spread of this bacterium quickly in a targeted manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mai-Lan Pham
- Center for Water and Environmental Sensors, Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, University for Continuing Education Krems, Dr.-Karl-Dorrek-Straße 30, 3500 Krems an der Donau, Austria; (S.M.); (M.B.)
| | - Somayeh Maghsoomi
- Center for Water and Environmental Sensors, Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, University for Continuing Education Krems, Dr.-Karl-Dorrek-Straße 30, 3500 Krems an der Donau, Austria; (S.M.); (M.B.)
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Kinderspitalgasse 15, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Brandl
- Center for Water and Environmental Sensors, Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, University for Continuing Education Krems, Dr.-Karl-Dorrek-Straße 30, 3500 Krems an der Donau, Austria; (S.M.); (M.B.)
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Pinchart PE, Leruste A, Pasqualini V, Mastroleo F. Microcystins and Cyanobacterial Contaminants in the French Small-Scale Productions of Spirulina ( Limnospira sp.). Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:354. [PMID: 37368655 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Spirulina is consumed worldwide, in the form of food or dietary supplements, for its nutritional value and health potential. However, these products may contain cyanotoxins, including hepatotoxic microcystins (MCs), produced by cyanobacterial contaminants. The French spirulina market has the particularity of being supplied half-locally by approximately 180 small-scale spirulina production farms. Data about this particular production and possible contaminations with other cyanobacteria and MCs are scarce. Thus, we collected the results of MC analyses and total cyanobacteria counts, carried out between 2013 and 2021, from 95 French spirulina producers who agreed to share their data. These data consisted of MC concentrations determined with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using 623 dry spirulina samples and 105 samples of spirulina cultures. In addition, potentially unsafe samples of dry spirulina were further investigated through mass spectrometry, as duplicate analysis. We confirmed that the situation of the French spirulina production stayed within the safe regulatory level in terms of MC levels. On the other hand, the inventory of cyanobacterial contaminants, based on 539 count results, included 14 taxa. We present their prevalence, interannual evolution and geographical distribution. We also suggested improvements in cultivation practices to limit their propagation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Etienne Pinchart
- UMR 6134 SPE, Université de Corse Pasquale Paoli (UCPP), 20250 Corte, France
- Fédération des Spiruliniers de France (FSF), 34800 Clermont-l'Hérault, France
| | - Amandine Leruste
- Fédération des Spiruliniers de France (FSF), 34800 Clermont-l'Hérault, France
| | - Vanina Pasqualini
- UMR 6134 SPE, Université de Corse Pasquale Paoli (UCPP), 20250 Corte, France
| | - Felice Mastroleo
- Microbiology Unit, Nuclear Medical Applications, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre, SCK CEN, 2400 Mol, Belgium
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España Amórtegui JC, Pekar H, Retrato MDC, Persson M, Karlson B, Bergquist J, Zuberovic-Muratovic A. LC-MS/MS Analysis of Cyanotoxins in Bivalve Mollusks-Method Development, Validation and First Evidence of Occurrence of Nodularin in Mussels ( Mytilus edulis) and Oysters ( Magallana gigas) from the West Coast of Sweden. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15050329. [PMID: 37235362 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15050329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In this paper, an LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous identification and quantification of cyanotoxins with hydrophilic and lipophilic properties in edible bivalves is presented. The method includes 17 cyanotoxins comprising 13 microcystins (MCs), nodularin (NOD), anatoxin-a (ATX-a), homoanatoxin (h-ATX) and cylindrospermopsin (CYN). A benefit to the presented method is the possibility for the MS detection of MC-LR-[Dha7] and MC-LR-[Asp3] as separately identified and MS-resolved MRM signals, two congeners which were earlier detected together. The performance of the method was evaluated by in-house validation using spiked mussel samples in the quantification range of 3.12-200 µg/kg. The method was found to be linear over the full calibration range for all included cyanotoxins except CYN for which a quadratic regression was used. The method showed limitations for MC-LF (R2 = 0.94), MC-LA (R2 ≤ 0.98) and MC-LW (R2 ≤ 0.98). The recoveries for ATX-a, h-ATX, CYN, NOD, MC-LF and MC-LW were lower than desired (<70%), but stable. Despite the given limitations, the validation results showed that the method was specific and robust for the investigated parameters. The results demonstrate the suitability of the method to be applied as a reliable monitoring tool for the presented group of cyanotoxins, as well as highlight the compromises that need to be included if multi-toxin methods are to be used for the analysis of cyanotoxins with a broader range of chemical properties. Furthermore, the method was used to analyze 13 samples of mussels (Mytilus edulis) and oysters (Magallana gigas) collected in the 2020-2022 summers along the coast of Bohuslän (Sweden). A complementary qualitative analysis for the presence of cyanotoxins in phytoplankton samples collected from marine waters around southern Sweden was performed with the method. Nodularin was identified in all samples and quantified in bivalve samples in the range of 7-397 µg/kg. Toxins produced by cyanobacteria are not included in the European Union regulatory monitoring of bivalves; thus, the results presented in this study can be useful in providing the basis for future work including cyanotoxins within the frame of regulatory monitoring to increase seafood safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio César España Amórtegui
- Science Department, Swedish Food Agency, Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
- Chemistry Department, Science Faculty, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Cr. 45 N° 26-85, Bogotá P.O. Box 111321, Colombia
| | - Heidi Pekar
- Science Department, Swedish Food Agency, Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
- Stockholm Water and Waste Company, Bryggerivägen 10, SE-106 36 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mark Dennis Chico Retrato
- Department of Chemistry, Biomedical Center, Analytical Chemistry and Neurochemistry, Uppsala University, Box 599, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Malin Persson
- Science Department, Swedish Food Agency, Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Bengt Karlson
- Research and Development, Oceanography, Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, Sven Källfelts Gata 15, SE-426 71 Västra Frölunda, Sweden
| | - Jonas Bergquist
- Department of Chemistry, Biomedical Center, Analytical Chemistry and Neurochemistry, Uppsala University, Box 599, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Aida Zuberovic-Muratovic
- Science Department, Swedish Food Agency, Box 622, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Chemistry, Biomedical Center, Analytical Chemistry and Neurochemistry, Uppsala University, Box 599, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
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Rhoades J, Fotiadou S, Paschalidou G, Papadimitriou T, Ordóñez AÁ, Kormas K, Vardaka E, Likotrafiti E. Microbiota and Cyanotoxin Content of Retail Spirulina Supplements and Spirulina Supplemented Foods. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1175. [PMID: 37317149 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11051175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacterial biomass such as spirulina (Arthrospira spp.) is widely available as a food supplement and can also be added to foods as a nutritionally beneficial ingredient. Spirulina is often produced in open ponds, which are vulnerable to contamination by various microorganisms, including some toxin-producing cyanobacteria. This study examined the microbial population of commercially available spirulina products including for the presence of cyanobacterial toxins. Five products (two supplements, three foods) were examined. The microbial populations were determined by culture methods, followed by identification of isolates using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF), and by 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing of the products themselves and of the total growth on the enumeration plates. Toxin analysis was carried out by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Several potentially pathogenic bacteria were detected in the products, including Bacillus cereus and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Microcystin toxins were detected in all the products at levels that could lead to consumers exceeding their recommended daily limits. Substantial differences were observed in the identifications obtained using amplicon sequencing and MALDI-TOF, particularly between closely related Bacillus spp. The study showed that there are microbiological safety issues associated with commercial spirulina products that should be addressed, and these are most likely associated with the normal means of production in open ponds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Rhoades
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Department of Food Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Stamatia Fotiadou
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Department of Food Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Georgia Paschalidou
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Department of Food Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Theodoti Papadimitriou
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment, University of Thessaly, 38446 Volos, Greece
| | | | - Konstantinos Kormas
- Department of Ichthyology and Aquatic Environment, University of Thessaly, 38446 Volos, Greece
- Agricultural Development Institiute, University Research and Innovation Centre "IASON", Argonafton & Filellinon, 38221 Volos, Greece
| | - Elisabeth Vardaka
- Department of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Eleni Likotrafiti
- Laboratory of Food Microbiology, Department of Food Science and Technology, International Hellenic University, 57400 Thessaloniki, Greece
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Towards a Better Quantification of Cyanotoxins in Fruits and Vegetables: Validation and Application of an UHPLC-MS/MS-Based Method on Belgian Products. SEPARATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/separations9100319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Vegetables and fruits can potentially accumulate cyanotoxins after water contaminated with cyanobacteria is used for irrigation. We developed and validated an analytical method to quantify eight microcystin congeners (MCs) and nodularin (NOD) using ultra high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) in three different matrices. Strawberries, carrots and lettuce are selected as model matrices to represent the fruits/berries, leafy and root vegetables, sequentially. The validation of a UHPLC-MS/MS method in the strawberry matrix is novel. Matrix effects are observed in all three matrices. Our methodology uses matrix-matched calibration curves to compensate for the matrix effect. The implementation of our method on 103 samples, containing nine different sorts of fruits and vegetables from the Belgian market, showed no presence of MCs or NOD. However, the recoveries of our quality controls showed the effectiveness of our method, illustrating that the use of this method in future research or monitoring as well as in official food controls in fruit and vegetable matrices is valid.
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