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Bakaros E, Voulgaridi I, Paliatsa V, Gatselis N, Germanidis G, Asvestopoulou E, Alexiou S, Botsfari E, Lygoura V, Tsachouridou O, Mimtsoudis I, Tseroni M, Sarrou S, Mouchtouri VA, Dadouli K, Kalala F, Metallidis S, Dalekos G, Hadjichristodoulou C, Speletas M. Innate Immune Gene Polymorphisms and COVID-19 Prognosis. Viruses 2023; 15:1784. [PMID: 37766191 PMCID: PMC10537595 DOI: 10.3390/v15091784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
COVID-19 is characterized by a heterogeneous clinical presentation and prognosis. Risk factors contributing to the development of severe disease include old age and the presence of comorbidities. However, the genetic background of the host has also been recognized as an important determinant of disease prognosis. Considering the pivotal role of innate immunity in the control of SARS-CoV-2 infection, we analyzed the possible contribution of several innate immune gene polymorphisms (including TLR2-rs5743708, TLR4-rs4986790, TLR4-rs4986791, CD14-rs2569190, CARD8-rs1834481, IL18-rs2043211, and CD40-rs1883832) in disease severity and prognosis. A total of 249 individuals were enrolled and further divided into five (5) groups, according to the clinical progression scale provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) (asymptomatic, mild, moderate, severe, and critical). We identified that elderly patients with obesity and/or diabetes mellitus were more susceptible to developing pneumonia and respiratory distress syndrome after SARS-CoV-2 infection, while the IL18-rs1834481 polymorphism was an independent risk factor for developing pneumonia. Moreover, individuals carrying either the TLR2-rs5743708 or the TLR4-rs4986791 polymorphisms exhibited a 3.6- and 2.5-fold increased probability for developing pneumonia and a more severe disease, respectively. Our data support the notion that the host's genetic background can significantly affect COVID-19 clinical phenotype, also suggesting that the IL18-rs1834481, TLR2-rs5743708, and TLR4-rs4986791 polymorphisms may be used as molecular predictors of COVID-19 clinical phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evangelos Bakaros
- Department of Immunology & Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece; (E.B.); (V.P.); (E.A.); (S.A.); (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.K.)
| | - Ioanna Voulgaridi
- Laboratory of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41222 Larissa, Greece; (I.V.); (V.A.M.); (K.D.); (C.H.)
| | - Vassiliki Paliatsa
- Department of Immunology & Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece; (E.B.); (V.P.); (E.A.); (S.A.); (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.K.)
| | - Nikolaos Gatselis
- Department of Medicine and Research Laboratory of Internal Medicine, National Expertise Center of Greece in Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Full Member of the European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), General University Hospital of Larissa, 41110 Larissa, Greece; (N.G.); (V.L.); (G.D.)
| | - Georgios Germanidis
- First Internal Medicine Department, Infectious Diseases Division, AHEPA Hospital, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54636 Thessaloniki, Greece; (G.G.); (O.T.); (I.M.); (S.M.)
| | - Evangelia Asvestopoulou
- Department of Immunology & Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece; (E.B.); (V.P.); (E.A.); (S.A.); (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.K.)
| | - Stamatia Alexiou
- Department of Immunology & Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece; (E.B.); (V.P.); (E.A.); (S.A.); (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.K.)
| | - Elli Botsfari
- Department of Immunology & Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece; (E.B.); (V.P.); (E.A.); (S.A.); (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.K.)
| | - Vasiliki Lygoura
- Department of Medicine and Research Laboratory of Internal Medicine, National Expertise Center of Greece in Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Full Member of the European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), General University Hospital of Larissa, 41110 Larissa, Greece; (N.G.); (V.L.); (G.D.)
| | - Olga Tsachouridou
- First Internal Medicine Department, Infectious Diseases Division, AHEPA Hospital, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54636 Thessaloniki, Greece; (G.G.); (O.T.); (I.M.); (S.M.)
| | - Iordanis Mimtsoudis
- First Internal Medicine Department, Infectious Diseases Division, AHEPA Hospital, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54636 Thessaloniki, Greece; (G.G.); (O.T.); (I.M.); (S.M.)
| | - Maria Tseroni
- National Public Health Organization, 15123 Athens, Greece;
| | - Styliani Sarrou
- Department of Immunology & Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece; (E.B.); (V.P.); (E.A.); (S.A.); (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.K.)
| | - Varvara A. Mouchtouri
- Laboratory of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41222 Larissa, Greece; (I.V.); (V.A.M.); (K.D.); (C.H.)
| | - Katerina Dadouli
- Laboratory of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41222 Larissa, Greece; (I.V.); (V.A.M.); (K.D.); (C.H.)
| | - Fani Kalala
- Department of Immunology & Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece; (E.B.); (V.P.); (E.A.); (S.A.); (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.K.)
| | - Simeon Metallidis
- First Internal Medicine Department, Infectious Diseases Division, AHEPA Hospital, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54636 Thessaloniki, Greece; (G.G.); (O.T.); (I.M.); (S.M.)
| | - George Dalekos
- Department of Medicine and Research Laboratory of Internal Medicine, National Expertise Center of Greece in Autoimmune Liver Diseases, Full Member of the European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), General University Hospital of Larissa, 41110 Larissa, Greece; (N.G.); (V.L.); (G.D.)
| | - Christos Hadjichristodoulou
- Laboratory of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41222 Larissa, Greece; (I.V.); (V.A.M.); (K.D.); (C.H.)
| | - Matthaios Speletas
- Department of Immunology & Histocompatibility, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larissa, Greece; (E.B.); (V.P.); (E.A.); (S.A.); (E.B.); (S.S.); (F.K.)
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2
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Astrakhantseva IV, Ershova AE, Chuvpilo SA, Kruglova NA, Ishmukhametov AA, Drutskaya MS, Kozlovskaya LI, Nedospasov SA. SARS-CoV-2 Binding and Neutralization Properties of Peptides Derived from N-Terminus of Human ACE2. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24098269. [PMID: 37175976 PMCID: PMC10179272 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24098269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The binding properties of synthetic and recombinant peptides derived from N-terminal part of ACE2, the main receptor for SARS-CoV-2, were evaluated. Additionally, the ability of these peptides to prevent virus entry in vitro was addressed using both pseudovirus particles decorated with the S protein, as well as through infection of Vero cells with live SARS-CoV-2 virus. Surprisingly, in spite of effective binding to S protein, all linear peptides of various lengths failed to neutralize the viral infection in vitro. However, the P1st peptide that was chemically "stapled" in order to stabilize its alpha-helical structure was able to interfere with virus entry into ACE2-expressing cells. Interestingly, this peptide also neutralized pseudovirus particles decorated with S protein derived from the Omicron BA.1 virus, in spite of variations in key amino acid residues contacting ACE2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina V Astrakhantseva
- Division of Immunobiology and Biomedicine, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius, Krasnodarsky Krai, 354349 Sochi, Russia
| | - Alina E Ershova
- Division of Immunobiology and Biomedicine, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius, Krasnodarsky Krai, 354349 Sochi, Russia
| | - Sergei A Chuvpilo
- Division of Immunobiology and Biomedicine, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius, Krasnodarsky Krai, 354349 Sochi, Russia
| | - Natalia A Kruglova
- Laboratory of Gene Therapy of Socially Significant Diseases, Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Institute of Gene Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119334 Moscow, Russia
| | - Aydar A Ishmukhametov
- Department of Emerging and Reemerging Infections, Chumakov Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences (Institute of Poliomyelitis), 108819 Moscow, Russia
- Institute for Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 119435 Moscow, Russia
| | - Marina S Drutskaya
- Laboratory of Molecular Mechanisms of Immunity, Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Liubov I Kozlovskaya
- Department of Emerging and Reemerging Infections, Chumakov Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences (Institute of Poliomyelitis), 108819 Moscow, Russia
- Institute for Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 119435 Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergei A Nedospasov
- Division of Immunobiology and Biomedicine, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sirius, Krasnodarsky Krai, 354349 Sochi, Russia
- Laboratory of Molecular Mechanisms of Immunity, Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia
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Wolday D, Fung CYJ, Morgan G, Casalino S, Frangione E, Taher J, Lerner-Ellis JP. HLA Variation and SARS-CoV-2 Specific Antibody Response. Viruses 2023; 15:906. [PMID: 37112884 PMCID: PMC10143129 DOI: 10.3390/v15040906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Differences in SARS-CoV-2-specific immune responses have been observed between individuals following natural infection or vaccination. In addition to already known factors, such as age, sex, COVID-19 severity, comorbidity, vaccination status, hybrid immunity, and duration of infection, inter-individual variations in SARS-CoV-2 immune responses may, in part, be explained by structural differences brought about by genetic variation in the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules responsible for the presentation of SARS-CoV-2 antigens to T effector cells. While dendritic cells present peptides with HLA class I molecules to CD8+ T cells to induce cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses (CTLs), they present peptides with HLA class II molecules to T follicular helper cells to induce B cell differentiation followed by memory B cell and plasma cell maturation. Plasma cells then produce SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies. Here, we review published data linking HLA genetic variation or polymorphisms with differences in SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody responses. While there is evidence that heterogeneity in antibody response might be related to HLA variation, there are conflicting findings due in part to differences in study designs. We provide insight into why more research is needed in this area. Elucidating the genetic basis of variability in the SARS-CoV-2 immune response will help to optimize diagnostic tools and lead to the development of new vaccines and therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2 and other infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawit Wolday
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada; (C.Y.J.F.); (G.M.); (S.C.); (E.F.); (J.T.)
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada
| | - Chun Yiu Jordan Fung
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada; (C.Y.J.F.); (G.M.); (S.C.); (E.F.); (J.T.)
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada
| | - Gregory Morgan
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada; (C.Y.J.F.); (G.M.); (S.C.); (E.F.); (J.T.)
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada
| | - Selina Casalino
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada; (C.Y.J.F.); (G.M.); (S.C.); (E.F.); (J.T.)
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada
| | - Erika Frangione
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada; (C.Y.J.F.); (G.M.); (S.C.); (E.F.); (J.T.)
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada
| | - Jennifer Taher
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada; (C.Y.J.F.); (G.M.); (S.C.); (E.F.); (J.T.)
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada
| | - Jordan P. Lerner-Ellis
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada; (C.Y.J.F.); (G.M.); (S.C.); (E.F.); (J.T.)
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Sinai Health, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1Z5, Canada
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Balzanelli MG, Distratis P, Lazzaro R, Pham VH, Tran TC, Dipalma G, Bianco A, Serlenga EM, Aityan SK, Pierangeli V, Nguyen KCD, Inchingolo F, Tomassone D, Isacco CG. Analysis of Gene Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in COVID-19 Disease Highlighting the Susceptibility and the Severity towards the Infection. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:diagnostics12112824. [PMID: 36428884 PMCID: PMC9689844 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12112824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many factors may influence the risk of being infected by SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Exposure to the virus cannot explain the variety of an individual's responses to the virus and the high differences of effect that the virus may cause to some. While a person's preexisting condition and their immune defenses have been confirmed to play a major role in the disease progression, there is still much to learn about hosts' genetic makeup towards COVID-19 susceptibility and risk. The host genetic makeup may have direct influence on the grade of predisposition and outcomes of COVID-19. In this study, we aimed to investigate the presence of relevant genetic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), the peripheral blood level of IL6, vitamin D and arterial blood gas (ABG) markers (pH, oxygen-SpO2 and carbon dioxide-SpCO2) on two groups, COVID-19 (n = 41, study), and the healthy (n = 43, control). We analyzed cytokine and interleukin genes in charge of both pro-inflammatory and immune-modulating responses and those genes that are considered involved in the COVID-19 progression and complications. Thus, we selected major genes, such as IL1β, IL1RN (IL-1 β and α receptor) IL6, IL6R (IL-6 receptor), IL10, IFNγ (interferon gamma), TNFα (tumor necrosis factor alpha), ACE2 (angiotensin converting enzyme), SERPINA3 (Alpha-1-Antiproteinase, Antitrypsin member of Serpin 3 family), VDR (vitamin D receptor Tak1, Bsm1 and Fok1), and CRP (c-reactive protein). Though more research is needed, these findings may give a better representation of virus pleiotropic activity and its relation to the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Giosuè Balzanelli
- SET-118, Department of Pre-Hospital and Emergency-San Giuseppe Moscati Hospital, 74100 Taranto, Italy
| | - Pietro Distratis
- SET-118, Department of Pre-Hospital and Emergency-San Giuseppe Moscati Hospital, 74100 Taranto, Italy
| | - Rita Lazzaro
- SET-118, Department of Pre-Hospital and Emergency-San Giuseppe Moscati Hospital, 74100 Taranto, Italy
| | - Van Hung Pham
- Department of Microbiology and Virology, Phan Chau Trinh University of Medicine, Danang City 50000, Vietnam
| | - Toai Cong Tran
- Department of Histology, Embryology and Genetics, Pham Ngoc Thach University of Medicine, Ho Chi Minh City 70000, Vietnam
| | - Gianna Dipalma
- Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Angelica Bianco
- Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Puglia and Basilicata, 71121 Foggia, Italy
| | - Emilio Maria Serlenga
- Hematology Department, Blood Transfusion Unit, SS Annunnziata Hospital, 74100 Taranto, Italy
| | | | | | - Kieu Cao Diem Nguyen
- Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Francesco Inchingolo
- Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Diego Tomassone
- Foundation of Physics Research Center, 87053 Celico, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Ciro Gargiulo Isacco
- Department of Interdisciplinary Medicine, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, 70126 Bari, Italy
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The Role of Genetic Factors in the Development of Acute Respiratory Viral Infection COVID-19: Predicting Severe Course and Outcomes. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10030549. [PMID: 35327350 PMCID: PMC8945420 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10030549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to identify single nucleotide variants in genes associated with susceptibility to or severe outcomes of COVID-19. A total of 319 genomic DNA samples from patients with varying degrees of disease severity and 78 control DNA samples from people who had regular or prolonged contact with patients with COVID-19 but did not have clinical manifestations and/or antibodies to SARS-CoV-2. Seven SNPs were identified that were statistically associated with disease risk or severe course, rs1799864 in the CCR2 gene (OR = 2.21), rs1990760 in the IFIH1 gene (OR = 2.41), rs1800629 in the TNF gene (OR = 1.98), rs75603675 in the TMPRSS2 gene (OR = 1.86), rs7842 in the C3AR1 gene (OR = 2.08), rs179008 in the gene TLR7 (OR = 1.85), rs324011 in the C3AR1 gene (OR = 2.08), rs179008 in the TLR7 gene (OR = 1.85), and rs324011 in the STAT6 gene (OR = 1.84), as well as two variants associated with protection from COVID-19, rs744166 in the STAT3 gene (OR = 0.36) and rs1898830 in the TLR2 gene (OR = 0.47). The genotype in the region of these markers can be the criterion of the therapeutic approach for patients with COVID-19.
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Manuto L, Grazioli M, Spitaleri A, Fontana P, Bianco L, Bertolotti L, Bado M, Mazzotti G, Bianca F, Onelia F, Lorenzin G, Simeoni F, Lazarevic D, Franchin E, Vecchio CD, Dorigatti I, Tonon G, Cirillo DM, Lavezzo E, Crisanti A, Toppo S. Rapid SARS-CoV-2 Intra-Host and Within-Household Emergence of Novel Haplotypes. Viruses 2022; 14:399. [PMID: 35215992 PMCID: PMC8877413 DOI: 10.3390/v14020399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In February 2020, the municipality of Vo', a small town near Padua (Italy) was quarantined due to the first coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19)-related death detected in Italy. To investigate the viral prevalence and clinical features, the entire population was swab tested in two sequential surveys. Here we report the analysis of 87 viral genomes, which revealed that the unique ancestor haplotype introduced in Vo' belongs to lineage B, carrying the mutations G11083T and G26144T. The viral sequences allowed us to investigate the viral evolution while being transmitted within and across households and the effectiveness of the non-pharmaceutical interventions implemented in Vo'. We report, for the first time, evidence that novel viral haplotypes can naturally arise intra-host within an interval as short as two weeks, in approximately 30% of the infected individuals, regardless of symptom severity or immune system deficiencies. Moreover, both phylogenetic and minimum spanning network analyses converge on the hypothesis that the viral sequences evolved from a unique common ancestor haplotype that was carried by an index case. The lockdown extinguished both the viral spread and the emergence of new variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Manuto
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
| | - Marco Grazioli
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
| | - Andrea Spitaleri
- Center for Omics Sciences, IRCCS San Raffaele Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (F.S.); (D.L.); (G.T.)
| | - Paolo Fontana
- Research and Innovation Center, Edmund Mach Foundation, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy; (P.F.); (L.B.)
| | - Luca Bianco
- Research and Innovation Center, Edmund Mach Foundation, 38098 San Michele all’Adige, Italy; (P.F.); (L.B.)
| | - Luigi Bertolotti
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Torino, Grugliasco, 10095 Turin, Italy;
| | - Martina Bado
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
| | - Giorgia Mazzotti
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
| | - Federico Bianca
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
| | - Francesco Onelia
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
| | - Giovanni Lorenzin
- Emerging Bacterial Pathogens Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.L.); (D.M.C.)
| | - Fabio Simeoni
- Center for Omics Sciences, IRCCS San Raffaele Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (F.S.); (D.L.); (G.T.)
| | - Dejan Lazarevic
- Center for Omics Sciences, IRCCS San Raffaele Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (F.S.); (D.L.); (G.T.)
| | - Elisa Franchin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
- Microbiology and Virology Diagnostic Unit, Padua University Hospital, Via Giustiniani, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Claudia Del Vecchio
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
- Microbiology and Virology Diagnostic Unit, Padua University Hospital, Via Giustiniani, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Ilaria Dorigatti
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK;
| | - Giovanni Tonon
- Center for Omics Sciences, IRCCS San Raffaele Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (F.S.); (D.L.); (G.T.)
- Functional Genomics of Cancer Unit, Division of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Daniela Maria Cirillo
- Emerging Bacterial Pathogens Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, 20132 Milan, Italy; (G.L.); (D.M.C.)
| | - Enrico Lavezzo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
| | - Andrea Crisanti
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
- Microbiology and Virology Diagnostic Unit, Padua University Hospital, Via Giustiniani, 35121 Padova, Italy
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK
| | - Stefano Toppo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padua, Italy; (L.M.); (M.G.); (M.B.); (G.M.); (F.B.); (F.O.); (E.F.); (C.D.V.); (E.L.)
- CRIBI Biotech Center, University of Padova, 35121 Padova, Italy
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