Association of calreticulin expression with disease activity and organ damage in systemic lupus erythematosus patients

Annexin A1, calreticulin and high mobility group box 1 are elevated in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis: Does immunogenic cell death occur in multiple sclerosis?

Introduction

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neuroinflammatory diseases characterized by demyelination of the nerve fibers. Immunogenic cell death (ICD) is a process, during which damaged and stressed cells release danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) activating immune responses. This study aimed to elucidate the induction of ICD in MS diseases.

Methods

To achieve this goal, the level of DAMPs including Annexin A1 (ANXA1), calreticulin and HMGB1 was measured in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of a secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) patient in comparison to control group.

Results

Results showed significant upregulation (more than two-fold) of ANXA1, calreticulin (CRT) and HMGB1 in the CSF of the patient.

Conclusion

Although further studies are suggested in this regard, this data could imply induction of ICD in MS. The proposed ICD might trigger immune response against neural cells resulting in neuroinflammation and demyelination in CNS in MS. Our observation could suggest inclusion of ICD interfering treatments in routine MS therapy.

Membranal Expression of Calreticulin Induced by Unfolded Protein Response in Melanocytes: A Mechanism Underlying Oxidative Stress-Induced Autoimmunity in Vitiligo

Calreticulin (CRT), a damage-associated molecular pattern molecule, is reported to translocate from the endoplasmic reticulum to the membrane in melanocytes under oxidative stress. To investigate the potential role of CRT in the pathogenesis of vitiligo, we analyzed the correlation between CRT and ROS in serum and lesions of vitiligo, detected CRT and protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) expression in vitiligo lesions, and studied the production of CRT and mediators of unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway and then tested the chemotactic migration of CD8+ T cells or CD11c+ CD86+ cells. Initially, we verified the overexpression of CRT in perilesional epidermis that was positively correlated with the disease severity of vitiligo. Furthermore, the PERK branch of UPR was confirmed to be responsible for the overexpression and membranal translocation of CRT in melanocytes under oxidative stress. We also found that oxidative stress-induced membranal translocation of CRT promoted the activation and migration of CD8+ T cells in vitiligo. In addition, dendritic cells from patients with vitiligo were also prone to maturation with the coincubation of melanocytes harboring membranal CRT. CRT could be induced on the membrane of melanocytes through UPR and might play a role in oxidative stress-triggered CD8+ T-cell response in vitiligo.

The therapeutic mavericks: Potent immunomodulating chaperones capable of treating human diseases

Two major chaperones, calreticulin (CRT) and binding immunoglobulin protein (GRP78/BiP) dependent on their location, have immunoregulatory or anti-inflammatory functions respectively. CRT induces pro-inflammatory cytokines, dendritic cell (DC) maturation and activates cytotoxic T cells against tumours. By contrast, GRP78/BiP induces anti-inflammatory cytokines, inhibits DC maturation and heightens T-regulatory cell responses. These latter functions rebalance immune homeostasis in inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis. Both chaperones are therapeutically relevant agents acting primarily on monocytes/DCs. Endogenous exposure of CRT on cancer cell surfaces acts as an 'eat-me' signal and facilitates improved elimination of stressed and dying tumour cells by DCs. Therefore, therapeutics that promote endogenous CRT translocation to the cell surface can improve the removal of cancer cells. However, infused recombinant CRT dampens this cancer cell eradication by binding directly to the DCs. Low levels of endogenous BiP appear as a surface biomarker of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in some types of tumour cells, a reflection of cells undergoing proliferation, in which resulting hypoxia and nutrient deprivation perturb ER homeostasis triggering the unfolded protein response, leading to increased expression of GRP78/BiP and altered cellular location. Conversely, infusion of an analogue of GRP78/BiP (IRL201805) can lead to long-term immune resetting and restoration of immune homeostasis. The therapeutic potential of both chaperones relies on them being relocated from their intracellular ER environment. Ongoing clinical trials are employing therapeutic interventions to either enhance endogenous cell surface CRT or infuse IRL201805, thereby triggering several disease-relevant immune responses leading to a beneficial clinical outcome.

QRISK3-based analysis of cardiovascular risk factors in patients with long-term but well-controlled systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multisystem inflammatory disease of unknown etiology. Corticosteroids and immunosuppressive agents are the principal forms of treatment for this condition. While cardiovascular disease (CVD) is known to be a major cause of death in patients with SLE, there has been no improvement over the last few decades with regard to diagnosis, treatment, or prognosis. The QRISK3 algorithm is a new algorithm that includes SLE-related risk factors; this tool can predict the risk of CVD over a ten-year period. In this study, involving 180 patients, we compared the performance of the Framingham risk score, the recalibrated risk prediction SCORE, and QRISK3 for the assessment of CVD in patients with a long course of disease and low disease activity. Then, we used a more efficient algorithm, QRISK3 to identify the risk factors for CVD. This was a prospective and cross-sectional study involving 116 patients. All patients fulfilled the ACR criteria. The systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity index 2000 (SLEDAI-2K) is widely used to assess disease activity in SLE patients; patients with a SLEDAI-2K less than or equal to 4 are considered to be stable. Thus, we defined well-controlled patients as those with a SLEDAI-2K score less than or equal to 4. The dose of glucocorticoid (GC) that patients received was less or equal to 10 mg per day. We recorded and assessed a range of traditional risk factors, current treatments, comorbidities, data at the time of onset, and SLE-related evaluations. The QRISK3 score, and the relative risk (RR) that this score defined, were used to estimate the risk of CVD in patients with SLE. According to these relative risks, the patients were divided into low- (n=28), intermediate- (n=46), and high-relative risk (n=31) groups for subgroup analysis. Of the 116 patients enrolled, 105 were eligible to be assessed for the risk of CVD. By univariate analyses, the RR was significantly related with age at the time of enrolment (p<0.001), age at onset (p<0.001), resting heart rate (RHR) (p<0.001), present dose of GCs (p<0.001), present SLEDAI-2K (p=0.015), aerobic exercise (p<0.001), initial SLEDAI-2K (p<0.001), and initial dose of GCs (p=0.048). In the multiple linear regression model, the RR of CVD was significantly correlated with the initial SLEDAI-2K score (β=2.112, p<0.001), initial dose of GCs (β=-0.009, p=0.041), resting heart rate (β=0.241, p=0.003) and age at onset (β=-0.208, p=0.004). Pearson's correlation showed that RHR was significantly associated with aerobic exercise (r=-0.322, p=0.001). Subgroup analysis further identified a positive correlation between the history of nephritis, metabolic syndrome (MetS), aerobic exercise, present dose of GCs, and the RR of CVD. Patients with long-term but well-controlled SLE had a high relative risk of CVD and that this was associated with resting heart rate (P=0.003), history of lupus nephritis (P<0.001), initial SLEDAI-2K score (P<0.001), and metabolic syndrome (P=0.017). However, age at onset (P<0.001), use of hydroxychloroquine (P=0.30) and Mycophenolate mofetil (P=0.01), and the initial dose of glucocorticoid (P=0.049), were protective factors. Younger SLE patients had a significantly higher relative risk of CVD than older patients (p<0.001). QRISK3 detected more SLE patients at high risk of CVD when compared to the Framingham and recalibrate SCORE. To reduce the risk of CVD in SLE patients, measures should be taken both during the initial stages of disease and for long-term management.

Role of Ca2+, Calnexin and Calreticulin in Platelet from Adult Patients with Chronic Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura

BACKGROUND

Adult chronic immune thrombocytopenia (chronic ITP) is a common autoimmune hemorrhagic disease characterized by decreased platelet production and increased platelet destruction, leading to thrombocytopenia. In this study, Ca²⁺, calnexin (CNX) and calreticulin (CRT) within platelets from adult patients with chronic ITP were investigated.

METHODS

Platelets were isolated from blood specimen collected from 20 adult patients with chronic ITP and 20 healthy volunteers. Ca²⁺, CNX and CRT were determined by flow cytometry, and the results were analyzed with EXPO32 ADC software.

RESULTS

Flow cytometry showed the expressions of Ca²⁺ (74.19±19.40% vs 22.79±10.47%) was elevated (P<0.05). However, CNX (15.10±7.32% vs 41.79±14.45%) and CRT (25.11±12.66% vs 38.58±12.02%) were decreased markedly in platelets from adult patients with chronic ITP (P<0.05 compared with healthy volunteers).

CONCLUSION

Based on enhanced expression of Ca²⁺ and attenuated expression of CNX and CRT in patients with chronic ITP, Ca²⁺ concentration and its associated down-regulated proteins may be important regulatory signals in the pathogenesis of chronic ITP.

An updated review of anti-Ro52 (TRIM21) antibodies impact in connective tissue diseases clinical management

Anti-Ro52 (or anti-TRIM21) antibodies are part of the family of anti-Ro/SSA antibodies, historically markers of Sjögren syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosus. Anti-Ro52 antibodies represent one the most frequently encountered autoantibodies in patients with connective tissue disease (primary Sjögren syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, systemic sclerosis and idiopathic inflammatory myopathies). Because of their lack of specificity and detection in patients with non-autoimmune disorders, the usefulness of anti-Ro52 testing in connective tissue diseases is still matter of debate among clinicians and immunologists. Autoantibodies are mainly diagnostic markers for autoimmune diseases but some of them can also be directly involved in the generation of tissue damage. Over the past decade several authors reported associations of anti-Ro52 antibodies with some clinical features - especially interstitial lung disease - and survival in patients with connective tissue diseases. There is also a growing evidence of the role of anti-Ro52 antibodies in the pathogenesis of connective tissue diseases. In this review, we comprehensively discuss the clinical associations of anti-Ro52 antibodies in the different connective tissue diseases and the recent advances on their potential role in the inflammatory response.

The Time Has Come to Explore Plasma Biomarkers in Genetic Cardiomyopathies

For patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) or arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM), screening for pathogenic variants has become standard clinical practice. Genetic cascade screening also allows the identification of relatives that carry the same mutation as the proband, but disease onset and severity in mutation carriers often remains uncertain. Early detection of disease onset may allow timely treatment before irreversible changes are present. Although plasma biomarkers may aid in the prediction of disease onset, monitoring relies predominantly on identifying early clinical symptoms, on imaging techniques like echocardiography (Echo) and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), and on (ambulatory) electrocardiography (electrocardiograms (ECGs)). In contrast to most other cardiac diseases, which are explained by a combination of risk factors and comorbidities, genetic cardiomyopathies have a clear primary genetically defined cardiac background. Cardiomyopathy cohorts could therefore have excellent value in biomarker studies and in distinguishing biomarkers related to the primary cardiac disease from those related to extracardiac, secondary organ dysfunction. Despite this advantage, biomarker investigations in cardiomyopathies are still limited, most likely due to the limited number of carriers in the past. Here, we discuss not only the potential use of established plasma biomarkers, including natriuretic peptides and troponins, but also the use of novel biomarkers, such as cardiac autoantibodies in genetic cardiomyopathy, and discuss how we can gauge biomarker studies in cardiomyopathy cohorts for heart failure at large.

Moonlighting Proteins Are Important Players in Cancer Immunology

Plasticity and adaptation to environmental stress are the main features that tumor and immune system share. Except for intrinsic and high-defined properties, cancer and immune cells need to overcome the opponent's defenses by activating more effective signaling networks, based on common elements such as transcriptional factors, protein-based complexes and receptors. Interestingly, growing evidence point to an increasing number of proteins capable of performing diverse and unpredictable functions. These multifunctional proteins are defined as moonlighting proteins. During cancer progression, several moonlighting proteins are involved in promoting an immunosuppressive microenvironment by reprogramming immune cells to support tumor growth and metastatic spread. Conversely, other moonlighting proteins support tumor antigen presentation and lymphocytes activation, leading to several anti-cancer immunological responses. In this light, moonlighting proteins could be used as promising new potential targets for improving current cancer therapies. In this review, we describe in details 12 unprecedented moonlighting proteins that during cancer progression play a decisive role in guiding cancer-associated immunomodulation by shaping innate or adaptive immune response.

A novel biomarker of chronic allograft dysfunction in renal transplant recipients (serum calreticulin and CD47)

Background

Chronic allograft dysfunction (CAD) is considered the leading cause of late allograft loss. The cluster of differentiation 47 (CD47) and calreticulin (CRT) are involved in many and diverse cellular processes. The present study was designed to study the role of the pro-phagocytic CRT and anti-phagocytic CD47 signals in patients with renal transplantation in relation to graft function.

Thirty renal transplantation recipients (RTR) for more than 6 months [15 with stable renal function and 15 with chronic allograft dysfunction (CAD)] and 15 healthy controls were enrolled in the study. Quantification of CRT, CD47, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) levels in serum was done using standardized enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. Measurement of renal function and urinary alkaline phosphatase (U.ALP) was done. Renal interstitial fibrosis (IF) was graded in renal biopsies of CAD.

Results

Serum CRT and urinary ALP levels were statistically significant higher (P < 0.001) while serum CD47 level was statistically significant lower (P < 0.001) in patients with CAD than patients with stable graft function and controls. There was statistically insignificant difference between controls and patients with stable graft function. Serum CRT and serum CD47 levels were positively correlated with each other and with worsening renal and tubular function, serum hsCRP in RTR and with degree of renal IF in patients with CAD (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

The activation and dysregulation of CRT and CD47 could play a role in the development of CAD and could be a potential biomarker for renal allograft dysfunction.

Expanded Autoantibody Profiles for Subsetting of Native American, African American, and European American Patients With Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

OBJECTIVE

Many Native American (NA) patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) do not exhibit the classical SLE autoantibody profiles of European American (EA) and African American (AA) patients with SLE. The poorer SLE disease outcomes noted in NA patients highlights a need for more equitable diagnostic and prognostic tools for NA patients with SLE. The objective was to identify informative autoantibody profiles for NA, AA, and EA patients with SLE using an expanded set of autoantigens.

METHODS

Sera from 49 NA, 49 AA, and 49 EA age-, sex-, and antinuclear autoantibody titer-matched patients with SLE who met the American College of Rheumatology classification criteria and 10 ethnicity-, sex-, and age-matched controls were tested for autoantibody reactivity by autoantigen microarrays. Autoantibodies that were significantly elevated in patients with SLE compared with ethnicity-specific controls were selected for hierarchical clustering. Differences in clinical criteria between patient clusters were determined by Fisher's exact test and corrected for multiple comparisons.

RESULTS

NA, AA, and EA patients with SLE each had a cluster distinguished by higher levels of anti-Ro52 and another cluster distinguished by nucleic acid-specific autoantibodies. Additional clusters were distinguished in NA patients by elevated extracellular matrix autoantibodies and were distinguished in AA patients by elevated Sm/RNP autoantibody and elevated nucleolin/histone autoantibody. Two EA patient clusters with similar nucleic acid- and Ro52-specific autoantibodies were distinguished by either high or low histone 2A reactivity. Renal manifestations trended higher in the NA Ro52 cluster and were significantly enriched in the AA nucleolin/histone cluster. The AA nucleolin/histone cluster and EA H2A cluster had higher disease activity.

CONCLUSION

Expanded autoantibody profiles can identify informative subsets of patients with SLE.

Proteomics of saliva, plasma, and salivary gland tissue in Sjögren's syndrome and non-Sjögren patients identify novel biomarker candidates

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to characterize and compare the proteome in whole saliva, plasma, and salivary gland tissue in patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) and patients having symptoms of pSS, but not fulfilling the classification criteria, and to search for diagnostic biomarker candidates for pSS.

METHODS

Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was conducted on whole saliva, plasma, and labial salivary gland tissue samples from 24 patients with pSS and 16 non-Sjögren control subjects (non-pSS). Gene Ontology (GO)-terms and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG)-pathways were applied for functional annotation.

RESULTS

1013 proteins were identified in whole saliva, 219 in plasma, and 3166 in salivary gland tissue. In saliva, 40 proteins differed significantly between the two groups. In pSS, proteins involved in immunoinflammatory processes were upregulated, whereas proteins related to salivary secretion were downregulated. The combination of neutrophil elastase, calreticulin, and tripartite motif-containing protein 29 yielded a receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) value of 0.97 (CI 0.93-1.00). Protein expression in plasma and salivary gland tissue did not differ between the patient groups.

CONCLUSION

The salivary proteome of patients with pSS differed from that of non-pSS patients, indicating that saliva proteomics represents a promising non-invasive diagnostic tool for pSS.

SIGNIFICANCE

Primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease, which clinically may present with a wide variety of symptoms and signs. Symptoms of dry eyes and dry mouth due to lacrimal and salivary gland dysfunction are prominent, but not pathognomonic, and an extensive diagnostic work-up including blood tests and labial salivary gland biopsy is often required to distinguish pSS from non-pSS. In this study, we used high throughput proteomics and identified a non-invasive biomarker candidate comprising a combination of three different upregulated salivary proteins, which enables differentiation between patients with pSS and non-pSS patients with an accuracy of 97%. In the future, this could contribute to earlier, more accurate and less costly diagnosis of pSS.

Review of the "X chromosome-nucleolus nexus" hypothesis of autoimmune diseases with an update explaining disruption of the nucleolus

The "X chromosome-nucleolus nexus" hypothesis provides a comprehensive explanation of how autoantibodies can develop following cellular stress. The hypothesis connects autoimmune diseases with the impact of environmental factors, such as viruses, through epigenetic disruption. The inactive X chromosome, a major epigenetic structure in the female cell's nucleus, is a key component of the hypothesis. The inactive X is vulnerable to disruption due to the following: (1) its heavy requirements for methylation to suppress gene expression, (2) its peripheral location at the nuclear envelope, (3) its late replication timing, and (4) its frequently observed close association with the nucleolus. The dynamic nucleolus can expand dramatically in response to cellular stress and this could disrupt the neighboring inactive X, particularly during replication, leading to expression from previously suppressed chromatin. Especially vulnerable at the surface of the inactive X chromosome would be genes and elements from Xp22 to the terminus of the short arm of the X. Expression of these genes and elements could interfere with nucleolar integrity, nucleolar efficiency, and future nucleolar stress response, and even lead to fragmentation of the nucleolus. Ribonucleoprotein complexes assembled in the nucleolus could be left in incomplete states and inappropriate conformations, and/or contain viral components when the nucleolus is disrupted and these abnormal complexes could initiate an autoimmune response when exposed to the immune system. Epitope spreading could then lead to an autoimmune reaction to the more abundant normal complexes. Many autoantigens reported in lupus and other autoimmune diseases are, at least transiently, nucleolar components.

Towards frailty biomarkers: Candidates from genes and pathways regulated in aging and age-related diseases

OBJECTIVE

Use of the frailty index to measure an accumulation of deficits has been proven a valuable method for identifying elderly people at risk for increased vulnerability, disease, injury, and mortality. However, complementary molecular frailty biomarkers or ideally biomarker panels have not yet been identified. We conducted a systematic search to identify biomarker candidates for a frailty biomarker panel.

METHODS

Gene expression databases were searched (http://genomics.senescence.info/genes including GenAge, AnAge, LongevityMap, CellAge, DrugAge, Digital Aging Atlas) to identify genes regulated in aging, longevity, and age-related diseases with a focus on secreted factors or molecules detectable in body fluids as potential frailty biomarkers. Factors broadly expressed, related to several "hallmark of aging" pathways as well as used or predicted as biomarkers in other disease settings, particularly age-related pathologies, were identified. This set of biomarkers was further expanded according to the expertise and experience of the authors. In the next step, biomarkers were assigned to six "hallmark of aging" pathways, namely (1) inflammation, (2) mitochondria and apoptosis, (3) calcium homeostasis, (4) fibrosis, (5) NMJ (neuromuscular junction) and neurons, (6) cytoskeleton and hormones, or (7) other principles and an extensive literature search was performed for each candidate to explore their potential and priority as frailty biomarkers.

RESULTS

A total of 44 markers were evaluated in the seven categories listed above, and 19 were awarded a high priority score, 22 identified as medium priority and three were low priority. In each category high and medium priority markers were identified.

CONCLUSION

Biomarker panels for frailty would be of high value and better than single markers. Based on our search we would propose a core panel of frailty biomarkers consisting of (1) CXCL10 (C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10), IL-6 (interleukin 6), CX3CL1 (C-X3-C motif chemokine ligand 1), (2) GDF15 (growth differentiation factor 15), FNDC5 (fibronectin type III domain containing 5), vimentin (VIM), (3) regucalcin (RGN/SMP30), calreticulin, (4) PLAU (plasminogen activator, urokinase), AGT (angiotensinogen), (5) BDNF (brain derived neurotrophic factor), progranulin (PGRN), (6) α-klotho (KL), FGF23 (fibroblast growth factor 23), FGF21, leptin (LEP), (7) miRNA (micro Ribonucleic acid) panel (to be further defined), AHCY (adenosylhomocysteinase) and KRT18 (keratin 18). An expanded panel would also include (1) pentraxin (PTX3), sVCAM/ICAM (soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule 1/Intercellular adhesion molecule 1), defensin α, (2) APP (amyloid beta precursor protein), LDH (lactate dehydrogenase), (3) S100B (S100 calcium binding protein B), (4) TGFβ (transforming growth factor beta), PAI-1 (plasminogen activator inhibitor 1), TGM2 (transglutaminase 2), (5) sRAGE (soluble receptor for advanced glycosylation end products), HMGB1 (high mobility group box 1), C3/C1Q (complement factor 3/1Q), ST2 (Interleukin 1 receptor like 1), agrin (AGRN), (6) IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor 1), resistin (RETN), adiponectin (ADIPOQ), ghrelin (GHRL), growth hormone (GH), (7) microparticle panel (to be further defined), GpnmB (glycoprotein nonmetastatic melanoma protein B) and lactoferrin (LTF). We believe that these predicted panels need to be experimentally explored in animal models and frail cohorts in order to ascertain their diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic potential.