Chronic ethanol exposure induces SK-N-SH cell apoptosis by increasing N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor expression and intracellular calcium

Life-threatening risk factors contribute to the development of diseases with the highest mortality through the induction of regulated necrotic cell death

Chronic diseases affecting the cardiovascular system, diabetes mellitus, neurodegenerative diseases, and various other organ-specific conditions, involve different underlying pathological processes. However, they share common risk factors that contribute to the development and progression of these diseases, including air pollution, hypertension, obesity, high cholesterol levels, smoking and alcoholism. In this review, we aim to explore the connection between four types of diseases with different etiologies and various risk factors. We highlight that the presence of risk factors induces regulated necrotic cell death, leading to the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), ultimately resulting in sterile inflammation. Therefore, DAMP-mediated inflammation may be the link explaining how risk factors can lead to the development and maintenance of chronic diseases. To explore these processes, we summarize the main cell death pathways activated by the most common life-threatening risk factors, the types of released DAMPs and how these events are associated with the pathophysiology of diseases with the highest mortality. Various risk factors, such as smoking, air pollution, alcoholism, hypertension, obesity, and high cholesterol levels induce regulated necrosis. Subsequently, the release of DAMPs leads to chronic inflammation, which increases the risk of many diseases, including those with the highest mortality rates.

Ethanol-activated CaMKII signaling induces neuronal apoptosis through Drp1-mediated excessive mitochondrial fission and JNK1-dependent NLRP3 inflammasome activation

Background

Neurodegeneration is a representative phenotype of patients with chronic alcoholism. Ethanol-induced calcium overload causes NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome formation and an imbalance in mitochondrial dynamics, closely associated with the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration. However, how calcium regulates this process in neuronal cells is poorly understood. Therefore, the present study investigated the detailed mechanism of calcium-regulated mitochondrial dynamics and NLRP3 inflammasome formation in neuronal cells by ethanol.

Methods

In this study, we used the SK-N-MC human neuroblastoma cell line. To confirm the expression level of the mRNA and protein, real time quantitative PCR and western blot were performed. Co-immunoprecipitation and Immunofluorescence staining were conducted to confirm the complex formation or interaction of the proteins. Flow cytometry was used to analyze intracellular calcium, mitochondrial dysfunction and neuronal apoptosis.

Results

Ethanol increased cleaved caspase-3 levels and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation associated with neuronal apoptosis. In addition, ethanol increased protein kinase A (PKA) activation and cAMP-response-element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation, which increased N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) expression. Ethanol-increased NMDAR induced intracellular calcium overload and calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) activation leading to phosphorylation of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) and c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase 1 (JNK1). Drp1 phosphorylation promoted Drp1 translocation to the mitochondria, resulting in excessive mitochondrial fission, mitochondrial ROS accumulation, and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, which was recovered by Drp1 inhibitor pretreatment. Ethanol-induced JNK1 phosphorylation activated the NLRP3 inflammasome that induced caspase-1 dependent mitophagy inhibition, thereby exacerbating ROS accumulation and causing cell death. Suppressing caspase-1 induced mitophagy and reversed the ethanol-induced apoptosis in neuronal cells.

Conclusions

Our results demonstrated that ethanol upregulated NMDAR-dependent CaMKII phosphorylation which is essential for Drp1-mediated excessive mitochondrial fission and the JNK1-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation resulting in neuronal apoptosis.

Association between polymorphisms in the GRIN1 gene 5' regulatory region and schizophrenia in a northern Han Chinese population and haplotype effects on protein expression in vitro

BACKGROUND

Schizophrenia is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder with a complex genetic and environmental etiology. Abnormal glutamate ionotropic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA) type subunit 1 (NR1) may be a potential cause of schizophrenia.

METHODS

We conducted a case-control study to investigate the association between the GRIN1 gene, which encodes the NR1 subunit, and the risk of schizophrenia in a northern Chinese Han population using Sanger DNA sequencing. The dual luciferase reporter assay was used to detect the influence of two different haplotypes on GRIN1 gene expression.

RESULTS

Seven SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms), including rs112421622 (- 2019 T/C), rs138961287 (- 1962--1961insT), rs117783907 (-1945G/T), rs181682830 (-1934G/A), rs7032504 (-1742C/T), rs144123109 (-1140G/A), and rs11146020 (-855G/C) were detected in the study population. Rs117783907 (-1945G/T) was associated with the occurrence of schizophrenia as a protective factor. The genotype frequencies of rs138961287 (- 1962--1961insT) and rs11146020 (-855G/C) were statistically different between cases and controls (p < 0.0083). The other four variations were not shown to be associated with the disease. Two haplotypes were composed of the seven SNPs, and distribution of T-del-G-G-C-G-G was significantly different between the case and control groups. However, the dual luciferase reporter assay showed that neither of the haplotypes affected luciferase expression in HEK-293 and SK-N-SH cell lines.

CONCLUSIONS

The GRIN1 gene may be related to the occurrence of schizophrenia. Additional research will be needed to fully ascertain the role of GRIN1 in the etiology of schizophrenia.