Identification of WISP1 as a novel oncogene in glioblastoma

IL-19 as a promising theranostic target to reprogram the glioblastoma immunosuppressive microenvironment

BACKGROUND

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive brain tumor with chemoresistant, immunosuppressive, and invasive properties. Despite standard therapies, including surgery, radiotherapy, and temozolomide (TMZ) chemotherapy, tumors inevitably recur in the peritumoral region. Targeting GBM-mediated immunosuppressive and invasive properties is a promising strategy to improve clinical outcomes.

METHODS

We utilized clinical and genomic data from the Taiwan GBM cohort and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) to analyze RNA sequencing data from patient tumor samples, determining the association of interleukin-19 (Il-19) expression with survival and immunosuppressive activity. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was performed to assess the relationship between the enrichment levels of immune subsets and Il-19 expression level, and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) was used to predict immune responses. Cytokine array and single-cell RNA sequencing were used to examine the effects of IL-19 blockade on tumor immune microenvironment, including tumor-infiltrating leukocyte profiles, differentiation and immunosuppressive genes expression in tumor associated macrophages (TAM). CRISPR Il-19-/- cell lines and Il-19-/- mice were used to examine the role of IL-19 in tumor invasion and M2-like macrophage-mediated immunosuppression. Additionally, we developed novel cholesterol-polyethylene glycol-superparamagnetic iron oxide-IL-19 antibody nanoparticles (CHOL-PEG-SPIO-IL-19), characterized them using dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy, Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy, prussian blue assay, and conducted in vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a human glioblastoma stem cell-derived GBM animal model.

RESULT

Genomic screening and IPA analysis identified IL-19 as a predicted immunosuppressive cytokine in the peritumoral region, associated with poor survival in patients with GBM. Blocking IL-19 significantly inhibited tumor progression of both TMZ-sensitive (TMZ-S) and TMZ-resistant (TMZ-R) GBM-bearing mice, and modulated the immune response within the GBM microenvironment. Single-cell transcriptome analysis reveal that IL-19 antibody treatment led to a marked increase in dendritic cells and monocyte/macrophage subsets associated with interferon-gamma signaling pathways. IL-19 blockade promoted T cell activation and reprogrammed tumor-associated macrophages toward weakened pro-tumoral phenotypes with reduced Arginase 1 expression. Il19-/- M2-like bone marrow-derived macrophages with lower Arginase 1 level lost their ability to suppress CD8 T cell activation. These findings indicated that IL-19 suppression limits TAM-mediated immune suppression. Molecular studies revealed that IL-19 promotes TMZ-resistant GBM cell migration and invasion through a novel IL-19/WISP1 signaling pathway. For clinical translation, we developed a novel CHOL-PEG-SPIO-IL-19 nanoparticles to target IL-19 expression in glioblastoma tissue. MRI imaging demonstrated enhanced targeting efficiency in brain tumors, with in vivo studies showing prominent hypointense areas in T2*-weighted MRI scans of tumor-bearing mice injected with CHOL-PEG-SPIO-IL-19, highlighting nanoparticle presence in IL-19-expressing regions. Prussian blue staining further confirmed the localization of these nanoparticles in tumor tissues, verifying their potential as a diagnostic tool for detecting IL-19 expression in glioblastoma. This system offers a theranostic approach, integrating diagnostic imaging and targeted therapy for IL-19-expressing GBM.

CONCLUSION

IL-19 is a promising theranostic target for reversing immunosuppression and restricting the invasive activity of chemoresistant GBM cells.

Sesquiterpene Lactones as Promising Anti-Glioblastoma Drug Candidates Exerting Complex Effects on Glioblastoma Cell Viability and Proneural-Mesenchymal Transition

Glioblastoma is one of the most aggressive brain cancers, characterized by active infiltrative growth and high resistance to radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Sesquiterpene triterpenoids (STLs) and their semi-synthetic analogs are considered as a promising source of novel anti-tumor agents due to their low systemic toxicity and multi-target pharmacological effects on key processes associated with tumor progression. The current review aims to systematize the knowledge on the anti-glioblastoma potential of STLs accumulated over the last decade and to identify key processes in glioblastoma cells that are most susceptible to the action of STLs. An analysis of published data clearly demonstrated that STLs, which can successfully cross the blood-brain barrier, exert a complex inhibitory effect on glioblastoma cells through the induction of the "mitochondrial dysfunction-oxidative stress-apoptosis" axis, the inhibition of glucose metabolism and cell cycle phase transition, and the suppression of glioblastoma cell motility and invasion through the blockade of proneural-mesenchymal transition. Taken together, this review highlights the promising anti-glioblastoma potential of STLs, which are not only able to induce glioblastoma cell death, but also effectively affect their diffusive spread, and suggests the possible directions for further investigation of STLs in the context of glioblastoma to better understand their mechanism of action.

Metabolic dysregulation of tricarboxylic acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) exhibits genetic alterations that induce the deregulation of oncogenic pathways, thus promoting metabolic adaptation. The modulation of metabolic enzyme activities is necessary to generate nucleotides, amino acids, and fatty acids, which provide energy and metabolic intermediates essential for fulfilling the biosynthetic needs of glioma cells. Moreover, the TCA cycle produces intermediates that play important roles in the metabolism of glucose, fatty acids, or non-essential amino acids, and act as signaling molecules associated with the activation of oncogenic pathways, transcriptional changes, and epigenetic modifications. In this review, we aim to explore how dysregulated metabolic enzymes from the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, along with their metabolites, modulate both catabolic and anabolic metabolic pathways, as well as pro-oncogenic signaling pathways, transcriptional changes, and epigenetic modifications in GBM cells, contributing to the formation, survival, growth, and invasion of glioma cells. Additionally, we discuss promising therapeutic strategies targeting key players in metabolic regulation. Therefore, understanding metabolic reprogramming is necessary to fully comprehend the biology of malignant gliomas and significantly improve patient survival.

An overview of CCN4 (WISP1) role in human diseases

CCN4 (cellular communication network factor 4), a highly conserved, secreted cysteine-rich matricellular protein is emerging as a key player in the development and progression of numerous disease pathologies, including cancer, fibrosis, metabolic and inflammatory disorders. Over the past two decades, extensive research on CCN4 and its family members uncovered their diverse cellular mechanisms and biological functions, including but not limited to cell proliferation, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, wound healing, repair, and apoptosis. Recent studies have demonstrated that aberrant CCN4 expression and/or associated downstream signaling is key to a vast array of pathophysiological etiology, suggesting that CCN4 could be utilized not only as a non-invasive diagnostic or prognostic marker, but also as a promising therapeutic target. The cognate receptor of CCN4 remains elusive till date, which limits understanding of the mechanistic insights on CCN4 driven disease pathologies. However, as therapeutic agents directed against CCN4 begin to make their way into the clinic, that may start to change. Also, the pathophysiological significance of CCN4 remains underexplored, hence further research is needed to shed more light on its disease and/or tissue specific functions to better understand its clinical translational benefit. This review highlights the compelling evidence of overlapping and/or diverse functional and mechanisms regulated by CCN4, in addition to addressing the challenges, study limitations and knowledge gaps on CCN4 biology and its therapeutic potential.

WISP1 induces the expression of macrophage migration inhibitory factor in human lung fibroblasts through Src kinases and EGFR-activated signaling pathways

Wnt1-inducible signaling protein 1 (WISP1/CCN4) is a secreted matricellular protein that is implicated in lung and airway remodeling. The macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a pleiotropic cytokine that has been associated with chronic lung diseases. In this study, we aimed to investigate the WISP1 signaling pathway and its ability to induce the expression of MIF in primary cultures of fibroblasts from normal human lungs (HLFs). Our results showed that WISP1 significantly stimulated the expression of MIF in a concentration- and time-dependent fashion. In WISP1-induced expression of MIF, αvβ5-integrin and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans as well as Src tyrosine kinases, MAP kinases, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt, PKC, and NF-κB were involved. WISP1-induced expression of MIF was attenuated in the presence of the Src kinase inhibitor PP2 or the MIF tautomerase activity inhibitor ISO-1. Moreover, WISP1 significantly increased the phosphorylation and activation of EGF receptor (EGFR) through transactivation by Src kinases. WISP1 also induced the expression of MIF receptor CD74 and coreceptor CD44, through which MIF exerts its effects on HLFs. In addition, it was found that MIF induced its own expression, as well as its receptors CD74/CD44, acting in an autocrine manner. Finally, WISP1-induced MIF promoted the expression of cyclooxygenase 2, prostaglandin E2, IL-6, and matrix metalloproteinase-2 demonstrating the regulatory role of WISP1-MIF axis in lung inflammation and remodeling involving mainly integrin αvβ5, Src kinases, PKC, NF-κB, and EGFR. The specific signaling pathways involved in WISP1-induced expression of MIF may prove to be excellent candidates for novel targets to control inflammation in chronic lung diseases.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The present study demonstrates for the first time that Wnt1-inducible signaling protein 1 (WISP1) regulates migration inhibitory factor (MIF) expression and activity and identifies the main signaling pathways involved. The newly discovered WISP1-MIF axis may drive lung inflammation and could result in the design of novel targeted therapies in inflammatory lung diseases.

Crosstalk between glioblastoma and tumor microenvironment drives proneural-mesenchymal transition through ligand-receptor interactions

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common intrinsic and aggressive primary brain tumor in adults, with a median survival of approximately 15 months. GBM heterogeneity is considered responsible for the treatment resistance and unfavorable prognosis. Proneural-mesenchymal transition (PMT) represents GBM malignant progression and recurrence, which might be a breakthrough to understand GBM heterogeneity and overcome treatment resistance. PMT is a complicated process influenced by crosstalk between GBM and tumor microenvironment, depending on intricate ligand-receptor interactions. In this review, we summarize the autocrine and paracrine pathways in the GBM microenvironment and related ligand-receptor interactions inducing PMT. We also discuss the current therapies targeting the PMT-related autocrine and paracrine pathways. Together, this review offers a comprehensive understanding of the failure of GBM-targeted therapy and ideas for future tendencies of GBM treatment.

WNT1 Inducible Signaling Pathway Protein 1 Is a Stroma-Specific Secreting Protein Inducing a Fibroblast Contraction and Carcinoma Cell Growth in the Human Prostate

The WNT1 inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1), a member of the connective tissue growth factor family, plays a crucial role in several important cellular functions in a highly tissue-specific manner. Results of a RT-qPCR indicated that WISP1 expressed only in cells of the human prostate fibroblasts, HPrF and WPMY-1, but not the prostate carcinoma cells in vitro. Two major isoforms (WISP1v1 and WISP1v2) were identified in the HPrF cells determined by RT-PCR and immunoblot assays. The knock-down of a WISP1 blocked cell proliferation and contraction, while treating respectively with the conditioned medium from the ectopic WISP1v1- and WISPv2-overexpressed 293T cells enhanced the migration of HPrF cells. The TNFα induced WISP1 secretion and cell contraction while the knock-down of WISP1 attenuated these effects, although TNFα did not affect the proliferation of the HPrF cells. The ectopic overexpression of WISP1v1 but not WISP1v2 downregulated the N-myc downstream regulated 1 (NDRG1) while upregulating N-cadherin, slug, snail, and vimentin gene expressions which induced not only the cell proliferation and invasion in vitro but also tumor growth of prostate carcinoma cells in vivo. The results confirmed that WISP1 is a stroma-specific secreting protein, enhancing the cell migration and contraction of prostate fibroblasts, as well as the proliferation, invasion, and tumor growth of prostate carcinoma cells.

Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Gliomas—Basic Insights and Treatment Opportunities

Simple Summary

Macrophages are a specialized immune cell type found in both invertebrates and vertebrates. Versatile in functionality, macrophages carry out important tasks such as cleaning cellular debris in healthy tissues and mounting immune responses during infection. In many cancer types, macrophages make up a significant portion of tumor tissue, and these are aptly called tumor-associated macrophages. In gliomas, a group of primary brain tumors, these macrophages are found in very high frequency. Tumor-associated macrophages can promote glioma development and influence the outcome of various therapeutic regimens. At the same time, these cells provide various potential points of intervention for therapeutic approaches in glioma patients. The significance of tumor-associated macrophages in the glioma microenvironment and potential therapeutic targets are the focus of this review.

Abstract

Glioma refers to a group of primary brain tumors which includes glioblastoma (GBM), astrocytoma and oligodendroglioma as major entities. Among these, GBM is the most frequent and most malignant one. The highly infiltrative nature of gliomas, and their intrinsic intra- and intertumoral heterogeneity, pose challenges towards developing effective treatments. The glioma microenvironment, in addition, is also thought to play a critical role during tumor development and treatment course. Unlike most other solid tumors, the glioma microenvironment is dominated by macrophages and microglia—collectively known as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). TAMs, like their homeostatic counterparts, are plastic in nature and can polarize to either pro-inflammatory or immunosuppressive states. Many lines of evidence suggest that immunosuppressive TAMs dominate the glioma microenvironment, which fosters tumor development, contributes to tumor aggressiveness and recurrence and, very importantly, impedes the therapeutic effect of various treatment regimens. However, through the development of new therapeutic strategies, TAMs can potentially be shifted towards a proinflammatory state which is of great therapeutic interest. In this review, we will discuss various aspects of TAMs in the context of glioma. The focus will be on the basic biology of TAMs in the central nervous system (CNS), potential biomarkers, critical evaluation of model systems for studying TAMs and finally, special attention will be given to the potential targeted therapeutic options that involve the TAM compartment in gliomas.

The CCN axis in cancer development and progression

Since the authors first reviewed this subject in 2016 significant progress has been documented in the CCN field with advances made in the understanding of how members of the CCN family of proteins, CCN1-6, contribute to the pathogenesis and progression, positive and negative, of a larger variety of cancers. As termed matricellular proteins, and more recently the connective communication network, it has become clearer that members of the CCN family interact complexly with other proteins in the extracellular microenvironment, membrane signaling proteins, and can also operate intracellularly at the transcriptional level. In this review we expand on this earlier information providing new detailed information and insights that appropriate a much greater involvement and importance of their role in multiple aspects of cancer. Despite all the new information many more questions have been raised and intriguing results generated that warrant greater investigation. In order to permit the reader to smoothly integrate the new information we discuss all relevant CCN members in the context of cancer subtypes. We have harmonized the nomenclature with CCN numbering for easier comparisons. Finally, we summarize what new has been learned and provide a perspective on how our knowledge about CCN1-6 is being used to drive new initiatives on cancer therapeutics.

5-aza-2'-deoxycitidine inhibits cell proliferation, extracellular matrix formation and Wnt/β-catenin pathway in human uterine leiomyomas

BACKGROUND

Uterine leiomyoma is a benign tumor with unclear pathogenesis and inaccurate treatment. This tumor exhibits altered DNA methylation related to disease progression. DNMT inhibitors as 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-aza-CdR), have been suggested to treat tumors in which DNA methylation is altered. We aimed to evaluate whether DNA methylation reversion with 5-aza-CdR reduces cell proliferation and extracellular matrix (ECM) formation in uterine leiomyoma cells to provide a potential treatment option.

METHODS

Prospective study using uterine leiomyoma and adjacent myometrium tissues and human uterine leiomyoma primary (HULP) cells (n = 16). In tissues, gene expression was analyzed by qRT-PCR and DNMT activity by ELISA. Effects of 5-aza-CdR treatment on HULP cells were assessed by CellTiter, western blot, and qRT-PCR.

RESULTS

DNMT1 gene expression was higher in uterine leiomyoma vs myometrium. Similarly, DNMT activity was greater in uterine leiomyoma and HULP cells (6.5 vs 3.8 OD/h/mg; 211.3 vs 63.7 OD/h/mg, respectively). After 5-aza-CdR treatment on HULP cells, cell viability was reduced, significantly so at 10 μM (85.3%). Treatment with 10 μM 5-aza-CdR on HULP cells significantly decreased expression of proliferation marker PCNA (FC = 0.695) and of ECM proteins (COLLAGEN I FC = 0.654; PAI-1, FC = 0.654; FIBRONECTIN FC = 0.733). 5-aza-CdR treatment also decreased expression of Wnt/β-catenin pathway final targets, including WISP1 protein expression (10 μM, FC = 0.699), c-MYC gene expression (2 μM, FC = 0.745 and 10 μM, FC = 0.728), and MMP7 gene expression (5 μM, FC = 0.520 and 10 μM, FC = 0.577).

CONCLUSIONS

5-aza-CdR treatment inhibits cell proliferation, ECM formation, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway targets in HULP cells, suggesting that DNA methylation inhibition is a viable therapeutic target in uterine leiomyoma.

Overexpression of Lrp5 enhanced the anti-breast cancer effects of osteocytes in bone

Osteocytes are the most abundant cells in bone, which is a frequent site of breast cancer metastasis. Here, we focused on Wnt signaling and evaluated tumor-osteocyte interactions. In animal experiments, mammary tumor cells were inoculated into the mammary fat pad and tibia. The role of Lrp5-mediated Wnt signaling was examined by overexpressing and silencing Lrp5 in osteocytes and establishing a conditional knockout mouse model. The results revealed that administration of osteocytes or their conditioned medium (CM) inhibited tumor progression and osteolysis. Osteocytes overexpressing Lrp5 or β-catenin displayed strikingly elevated tumor-suppressive activity, accompanied by downregulation of tumor-promoting chemokines and upregulation of apoptosis-inducing and tumor-suppressing proteins such as p53. The antitumor effect was also observed with osteocyte-derived CM that was pretreated with a Wnt-activating compound. Notably, silencing Lrp5 in tumors inhibited tumor progression, while silencing Lrp5 in osteocytes in conditional knockout mice promoted tumor progression. Osteocytes exhibited elevated Lrp5 expression in response to tumor cells, implying that osteocytes protect bone through canonical Wnt signaling. Thus, our results suggest that the Lrp5/β-catenin axis activates tumor-promoting signaling in tumor cells but tumor-suppressive signaling in osteocytes. We envision that osteocytes with Wnt activation potentially offer a novel cell-based therapy for breast cancer and osteolytic bone metastasis.

WISP1 aggravates cell metastatic potential by abrogating TGF--Smad2/3-dependent epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma

Laryngeal squamous cell cancer (LSCC) is a common carcinoma with high morbidity and mortality. Metastasis constitutes the major cause of death and poor prognosis among patients with LSCC. Recent evidence confirms critical function of Wnt1-inducible signaling protein 1 (WISP1) in several cancers. However, its contribution in LSCC metastasis remains unclear. Specimens of tumor tissues and adjacent normal mucosa were collected from patients with LSCC. The mRNA and protein levels were determined using quantitative real-time PCR and Western blot, respectively. RNA interference was applied to silence the expression of WISP1 and TGF-β, and recombinant adenovirus was used to overexpress WISP1 in human LSCC cell line TU212 cells. Cell invasion and migration were determined by transwell assay. High expression of WISP1 was observed in LSCC tissues, especially in those from metastatic groups. Ectopic expression of WISP1 enhanced invasion and migration of TU212 cells. On the contrary, WISP1 knockdown reduced numbers of invasive and migrated cells. Additionally, elevation of WISP1 depressed the expression of epithelial marker E-cadherin and increased levels of mesenchymal marker vimentin in TU212 cells, whereas WISP suppression yielded the opposite effects. Further analysis corroborated that WISP1 overexpression enhanced activation of TGF-β-Smad signaling by increasing expression of TGF-β1, p-Smad2, and p-Smad3, which was abrogated following WISP1 down-regulation. Moreover, TGF-β1 exposure facilitated LSCC cell invasion and migration. Notably, blockage of the TGF-β-Smad pathway by si-TGF-β overturned WISP-1-evoked epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and subsequent cell invasion and migration. These findings highlight the pro-metastatic function of WISP1 in LSCC by regulating cell invasion and migration via TGF-β-Smad-mediated EMT, supporting a promising invention target for LSCC therapy.

PHF20 Promotes Glioblastoma Cell Malignancies Through a WISP1/BGN-Dependent Pathway

Glioblastoma (GBM) stem cells are resistant to cancer therapy, and therefore responsible for tumor progression and recurrence after conventional therapy. However, the molecular mechanisms driving the maintenance of stemness and dedifferentiation are poorly understood. In this study, we identified plant homeodomain finger-containing protein 20 (PHF20) as a crucial epigenetic regulator for sustaining the stem cell-like phenotype of GBM. It is highly expressed in GBM and tightly associated with high levels of aggressiveness of tumors and potential poor prognosis in GBM patients. Knockout of PHF20 inhibits GBM cell proliferation, as well as its invasiveness and stem cell-like traits. Mechanistically, PHF20 interacts with WDR5 and binds to the promoter regions of WISP1 for its expression. Subsequently, WISP1 and BGN act in concert to regulate the degradation of β-Catenin. Our findings have identified PHF20 as a key driver of GBM malignant behaviors, and provided a potential target for developing prognosis and therapy.

MicroRNA-29b-3p enhances radiosensitivity through modulating WISP1-mediated mitochondrial apoptosis in prostate cancer cells

Radiotherapy is frequently applied for clinically localized prostate cancer while its efficacy could be significantly hindered by radioresistance. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators in mediating cellular responses to ionizing radiation (IR), and strongly associate with radiosensitivity in many cancers. In this study, enhancement of radiosensitivity by miR-29b-3p was demonstrated in prostate cancer cell line LNCaP in vitro. Results showed that miR-29b-3p expression was significantly upregulated in response to IR from both X-rays and carbon ion irradiations. Knockdown of miR-29b-3p resulted in radioresistance while overexpression of miR-29b-3p led to increased radiosensitivity (showing reduced cell viability, suppressed cell proliferation and decreased colony formation). In addition, miR-29b-3p was found to directly target Wnt1-inducible-signaling protein 1 (WISP1). Inhibition of WISP1 facilitated the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway through suppressing Bcl-XL expression while activating caspase-3 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP). The results indicated that miR-29b-3p was a radiosensitizing miRNAs and could enhance radiosensitivity of LNCaP cells by targeting WISP1. These findings suggested a novel treatment to overcome radioresistance in prostate cancer patients, especially those with higher levels of the WISP1 expression.

Dual Role of WISP1 in maintaining glioma stem cells and tumor-supportive macrophages in glioblastoma

The interplay between glioma stem cells (GSCs) and the tumor microenvironment plays crucial roles in promoting malignant growth of glioblastoma (GBM), the most lethal brain tumor. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this crosstalk are incompletely understood. Here, we show that GSCs secrete the Wnt‐induced signaling protein 1 (WISP1) to facilitate a pro-tumor microenvironment by promoting the survival of both GSCs and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). WISP1 is preferentially expressed and secreted by GSCs. Silencing WISP1 markedly disrupts GSC maintenance, reduces tumor-supportive TAMs (M2), and potently inhibits GBM growth. WISP1 signals through Integrin α6β1-Akt to maintain GSCs by an autocrine mechanism and M2 TAMs through a paracrine manner. Importantly, inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin-WISP1 signaling by carnosic acid (CA) suppresses GBM tumor growth. Collectively, these data demonstrate that WISP1 plays critical roles in maintaining GSCs and tumor-supportive TAMs in GBM, indicating that targeting Wnt/β-catenin-WISP1 signaling may effectively improve GBM treatment and the patient survival.

The tumour microenvironment plays an important role in promoting glioblastoma. Here, the authors show that glioma stem cells secrete WISP1, which promotes both the survival of the stem cells and tumour-associated macrophages.

Personalized therapy and stem cell transplantation for pro-inflammatory modulation of cancer stem cells microenvironment in glioblastoma: Review

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most aggressive types of brain tumor in humans. The prognosis for patients with GBM is unfavorable and treatment is largely ineffective, where modern treatment regimens typically increase survival by 15 months. GBM relapse and progression are associated with cancer stem cells (CSCs). The present review provides a critical analysis of the primary reasons underlying the lack of effectiveness of modern CSC management methods. An emphasis is placed on the role of the blood-brain barrier in the development of treatment resistance. The existing methods for increasing the efficiency of antitumor genotoxic therapy are also described, and a strategy for personalized regulation of CSC based on post-genome technologies is suggested. The hypothesis that GBM cells employ a special mechanism for DNA repair based on their interactions with normal stem cells, is presented and the function of the tumor microenvironment in fulfilling the antitumor potential of normal stem cells is explained. Additionally, the mechanisms by which cancer stem cells regulate glioblastoma progression and recurrence are described based on novel biomedical technologies.

Down-regulating NQO1 promotes cellular proliferation in K562 cells via elevating DNA synthesis

BACKGROUND

NQO1 protein acts as a cellular protective system, on account of its role as a quinone reductase and redox regulator. Nonetheless, new NQO1 roles are emerging-including its regulation of the cellular proliferation of many tumor cells-and this enzyme has been found to relate to the incidence of various diseases, including chronic myeloid leukemia. However, the mechanisms through which NQO1 influences leukemia progression remain unclear.

MARTIAL AND METHODS

The current study looks to name NQO1 as a novel molecular target that modulates DNA synthesis and chronic myeloid leukemia growth.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that the frequency of the T allele of NQO1 polymorphism in chronic myeloid leukemia patients is higher than that among healthy East Asian individuals (0.492 vs. 0.419) and much higher than the average level of the general population (0.492 vs. 0.289) (1000 Genomes). Functionally, NQO1 knockdown increases the protein expression of the TOP2A and MCM complex, and consequently promotes DNA synthesis and K562 cell growth. NQO1 knockdown also promotes tumorigenesis in a xenograft model. NQO1 overexpression, on the other hand, was found to have the opposite effects.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our results show that NQO1 downregulation promotes K562 cellular proliferation via the elevation of DNA synthesis.

Involvement of Phosphatase and Tensin Homolog in Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 4/6 Inhibitor-Induced Blockade of Glioblastoma

Dysregulation of retinoblastoma (Rb) signaling pathway have been established as a requirement for glioblastoma (GBM) initiation and progression, which suggests that blockade of CDK4/6-Rb signaling axis for GBM treatment. Palbociclib, a selective inhibitor of the cyclin-dependent kinases CDK4/6, has been applied for breast cancer treatment. However, its efficacy against glioblastoma has not been well clarified. Here, effects of CDK4/6 inhibitors on various kinds of GBM cell lines are investigated and the functional mechanisms are identified. Data showed that cells with diverse PTEN status respond to palbociclib differently. Gain-of-function and loss-of-function studies indicated that PTEN enhanced the sensitivity of GBM cells to palbociclib in vitro and in vivo, which was associated with suppressions of Akt and ERK signaling and independent of Rb signaling inhibition. Hence, our findings support that palbociclib selectively

The WNT Pathway Is Relevant for the BCR-ABL1-Independent Resistance in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia

Notwithstanding the introduction of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors (TKIs) revolutionized the outcome of Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML), one third of patients still suspends treatment for failure response. Recent research demonstrated that several BCR/ABL1-independent mechanisms can sustain resistance, but the relationship between these mechanisms and the outcome has not yet been fully understood. This study was designed to evaluate in a “real-life” setting if a change of expression of several genes involved in the WNT/BETA-CATENIN, JAK-STAT, and POLYCOMB pathways might condition the outcome of CML patients receiving TKIs. Thus, the expression of 255 genes, related to the aforementioned pathways, was measured by quantitative PCR after 6 months of therapy and compared with levels observed at diagnosis in 11 CML patients, in order to find possible correlations with quality of response to treatment and event-free-survival (EFS). These results were then re-analyzed by the principal component method (PCA) for tempting to better cluster resistant cases. After 12 months of therapy, 6 patients achieved an optimal response and 5 were “resistant;” after application of both statistical methods, it was evident that in all pathways a significant overall up-regulation occurred, and that WNT was the pathway mostly responsible for the TKIs resistance. Indeed, 100% of patients with a “low” up-regulation of this pathway achieved an optimal response vs. 33% of those who showed a “high” gene over-expression (p = 0.016). Analogously, the 24-months EFS resulted significantly influenced by the degree of up-regulation of the WNT signaling: all patients with a “low” up-regulation were event-free vs. 33% of those who presented a “high” gene expression (p = 0.05). In particular, the PCA analysis confirmed the role of WNT pathway and showed that the most significantly up-regulated genes with negative prognostic value were DKK, WNT6, WISP1, and FZD8. In conclusion, our results sustain the need of a wide and multitasking approach in order to understand the resistance mechanisms in CML.

Integrated analysis of lncRNA and mRNA repertoires in Marek's disease infected spleens identifies genes relevant to resistance

BACKGROUND

Marek's disease virus (MDV) is an oncogenic herpesvirus that can cause T-cell lymphomas in chicken. Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) is strongly associated with various cancers and many other diseases. In chickens, lncRNAs have not been comprehensively identified. Here, we profiled mRNA and lncRNA repertoires in three groups of spleens from MDV-infected and non-infected chickens, including seven tumorous spleens (TS) from MDV-infected chickens, five spleens from the survivors (SS) without lesions after MDV infection, and five spleens from noninfected chickens (NS), to explore the underlying mechanism of host resistance in Marek's disease (MD).

RESULTS

By using a precise lncRNA identification pipeline, we identified 1315 putative lncRNAs and 1166 known lncRNAs in spleen tissue. Genomic features of putative lncRNAs were characterized. Differentially expressed (DE) mRNAs, putative lncRNAs, and known lncRNAs were profiled among three groups. We found that several specific intergroup differentially expressed genes were involved in important biological processes and pathways, including B cell activation and the Wnt signaling pathway; some of these genes were also found to be the hub genes in the co-expression network analyzed by WGCNA. Network analysis depicted both intergenic correlation and correlation between genes and MD traits. Five DE lncRNAs including MSTRG.360.1, MSTRG.6725.1, MSTRG.6754.1, MSTRG.15539.1, and MSTRG.7747.5 strongly correlated with MD-resistant candidate genes, such as IGF-I, CTLA4, HDAC9, SWAP70, CD72, JCHAIN, CXCL12, and CD8B, suggesting that lncRNAs may affect MD resistance and tumorigenesis in chicken spleens through their target genes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide both transcriptomic and epigenetic insights on MD resistance and its pathological mechanism. The comprehensive lncRNA and mRNA transcriptomes in MDV-infected chicken spleens were profiled. Co-expression analysis identified integrated lncRNA-mRNA and gene-gene interaction networks, implying that hub genes or lncRNAs exert critical influence on MD resistance and tumorigenesis.

WNT1-inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1/CCN4) stimulates melanoma invasion and metastasis by promoting the epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Besides intrinsic changes, malignant cells also release soluble signals that reshape their microenvironment. Among these signals is WNT1-inducible signaling pathway protein 1 (WISP1), a secreted matricellular protein whose expression is elevated in several cancers, including melanoma, and is associated with reduced survival of patients diagnosed with primary melanoma. Here, we found that WISP1 knockout increases cell proliferation and represses wound healing, migration, and invasion of mouse and human melanoma cells in multiple in vitro assays. Metastasis assays revealed that WISP1 knockout represses tumor metastasis of B16F10 and YUMM1.7 melanoma cells in both C57BL/6Ncrl and NOD-scid IL2Rγ^null (NSG) mice. WT B16F10 cells having an invasion phenotype in a transwell assay possessed a gene expression signature similar to that observed in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), including E-cadherin repression and fibronectin and N-cadherin induction. Upon WISP1 knockout, expression of these EMT signature genes went in the opposite direction in both mouse and human cell lines, and EMT-associated gene expression was restored upon exposure to media containing WISP1 or to recombinant WISP1 protein. In vivo, Wisp1 knockout-associated metastasis repression was reversed by the reintroduction of either WISP1 or snail family transcriptional repressor 1 (SNAI1). Experiments testing EMT gene activation and inhibition with recombinant WISP1 or kinase inhibitors in B16F10 and YUMM1.7 cells suggested that WISP1 activates AKT Ser/Thr kinase and that MEK/ERK signaling pathways shift melanoma cells from proliferation to invasion. Our results indicate that WISP1 present within the tumor microenvironment stimulates melanoma invasion and metastasis by promoting an EMT-like process.

The role of CCN4/WISP-1 in the cancerous phenotype

CCN proteins are secreted into the extracellular environment where they interact with both components of the extracellular matrix and with cell surface receptors to regulate cellular function. Through these interactions, CCNs act as extracellular ligands to activate intracellular signal transduction pathways. CCN4/WISP-1, like other CCNs, plays multiple physiologic roles in development and also participates in pathogenesis. CCN4 is of particular interest with respect to cancer, showing promise as a biomarker or prognostic factor as well as a potential therapeutic target. This review focuses on recent work addressing the role of CCN4 in cancer. While CCN4 has been identified as an oncogene in a number of cancers, where it enhances cell migration and promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition, there are other cancers where CCN4 appears to play an inhibitory role. The mechanisms underlying these differences in cellular response have not yet been delineated, but are an active area of investigation. The expression and activities of CCN4 splice variants are likewise an emerging area for study. CCN4 acts as an autocrine factor that regulates the cancer cells from which it is secreted. However, CCN4 is also a paracrine factor that is secreted by stromal fibroblasts, and can affect the function of vascular endothelial cells. In summary, current evidence is abundant in regard to establishing potential roles for CCN4 in oncogenesis, but much remains to be learned about the functions of this fascinating protein as both an autocrine and paracrine regulator in the tumor microenvironment.

Tp53 Mutation Inhibits Ubiquitination and Degradation of WISP1 via Down-Regulation of Siah1 in Pancreatic Carcinogenesis

Wnt1 inducible signaling pathway protein-1 (WISP1) may play an important role in promoting carcinogenesis. However, the biological function and underlying mechanism of WISP1 in pancreatic carcinogenesis still remains enigmatic. In this study, immunochemistry staining showed that protein levels of WISP1 were more significantly upregulated in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) tissues with Tp53 mutation than in PDAC tissues with Tp53 wild-type. In addition, a significant correlation was observed between increased malignant phenotype of tumors from well-differentiated adenocarcinoma tissues to moderately- or poorly-differentiated adenocarcinoma tissues shifting from cytoplasmic expression to nuclear accumulation of WISP1. Interestingly, WISP1 expression was correlated with the poor prognosis in PDAC patients with Tp53 mutation. Also, the biological function analysis showed that WISP1 may act as a potential oncogene in PDAC cells. In addition, immunofluorescence analysis showed that Tp53 mutation promoted WISP1 expression in PanIN and PDAC cells, while Siah E3 Ubiquitin Protein Ligase 1 (Siah1) inhibited WISP1 expression in PDAC cells. Moreover, through immunoprecipitation, immunoblotting analysis, in vitro binding assay, and ubiquitination assay, we found that Tp53 mutation inhibited ubiquitination and degradation of Siah1-dependent WISP1. Therefore, Tp53 mutation-Siah1-WISP1 is a new signaling pathway, playing an important role in pancreatic carcinogenesis.