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Sogbe M, Bilbao I, Marchese FP, Zazpe J, De Vito A, Pozuelo M, D’Avola D, Iñarrairaegui M, Berasain C, Arechederra M, Argemi J, Sangro B. Prognostic value of ultra-low-pass whole-genome sequencing of circulating tumor DNA in hepatocellular carcinoma under systemic treatment. Clin Mol Hepatol 2024; 30:177-190. [PMID: 38163441 PMCID: PMC11016491 DOI: 10.3350/cmh.2023.0426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS New prognostic markers are needed to identify patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) who carry a worse prognosis. Ultra-low-pass whole-genome sequencing (ULP-WGS) (≤0.5× coverage) of cell-free DNA (cfDNA) has emerged as a low-cost promising tool to assess both circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) fraction and large structural genomic alterations. Here, we studied the performance of ULP-WGS of plasma cfDNA to infer prognosis in patients with HCC. METHODS Plasma samples were obtained from patients with HCC prior to surgery, locoregional or systemic therapy, and were analyzed by ULP-WGS of cfDNA to an average genome-wide fold coverage of 0.3x. ctDNA and copy number alterations (CNA) were estimated using the software package ichorCNA. RESULTS Samples were obtained from 73 HCC patients at different BCLC stages (BCLC 0/A: n=37, 50.7%; BCLC B/C: n=36, 49.3%). ctDNA was detected in 18 out of 31 patients who received systemic treatment. Patients with detectable ctDNA showed significantly worse overall survival (median, 13.96 months vs not reached). ctDNA remained an independent predictor of prognosis after adjustment by clinical-pathologic features and type of systemic treatment (hazard ratio 7.69; 95%, CI 2.09-28.27). Among ctDNA-positive patients under systemic treatments, the loss of large genomic regions in 5q and 16q arms was associated with worse prognosis after multivariate analysis. CONCLUSION ULP-WGS of cfDNA provides clinically relevant information about the tumor biology. The presence of ctDNA and the loss of 5q and 16q arms in ctDNA-positive patients are independent predictors of worse prognosis in patients with advanced HCC receiving systemic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Sogbe
- Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Liver Unit, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Idoia Bilbao
- Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Liver Unit, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Francesco P. Marchese
- University of Navarra, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Computational Biology and Translational Genomics Program, Pamplona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Jon Zazpe
- University of Navarra, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Computational Biology and Translational Genomics Program, Pamplona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Annarosaria De Vito
- University of Navarra, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Computational Biology and Translational Genomics Program, Pamplona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Marta Pozuelo
- University of Navarra, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Computational Biology and Translational Genomics Program, Pamplona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Delia D’Avola
- Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Internal Medicine Department, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Mercedes Iñarrairaegui
- Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Liver Unit, Pamplona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Carmen Berasain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
- University of Navarra, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Hepatology Laboratory, Solid Tumors Program, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Maria Arechederra
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
- University of Navarra, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Hepatology Laboratory, Solid Tumors Program, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Josepmaria Argemi
- Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Liver Unit, Pamplona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
- University of Navarra, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Hepatology Laboratory, Solid Tumors Program, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Bruno Sangro
- Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Liver Unit, Pamplona, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Navarra (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
- Clinica Universidad de Navarra, Liver Unit, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBEREHD), Pamplona, Spain
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Li Z, Li Y, Ouyang Q, Li X, Huang J. Exosome-derived GTF2H2 from Huh7 cells can inhibit endothelial cell viability, migration, tube formation, and permeability. Tissue Cell 2022; 79:101922. [PMID: 36116407 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2022.101922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a leading cause of cancer-related morbidity and mortality worldwide. Given that HCC is an extraordinarily heterogeneous malignant disease, finding an effective therapeutic strategy for treating it has been difficult. Because of the importance of angiogenesis in tumorigenesis, targeting the more homogenous HCC endothelial cells may be a better therapeutic strategy. In a unpublished manuscript, we found that the expression levels of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) and matrix metalloproteinase 2/9 (MMP2/9) were reduced in human HCC tissues that overexpressed DNA damage repair gene general transcription factor II subunit H2 (GTF2H2). This suggested that GTF2H2 may have an inhibitory effect on angiogenesis. Therefore, we hypothesized that GTF2H2 acts as an anti-angiogenesis gene. However, our results showed that GTF2H2 overexpression had no effect on endothelial cell viability, migration, or permeability. To our surprise, treating human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) with the culture medium of Huh 7 cells overexpressing GTF2H2 could inhibit their viability, migration, and permeability. We then isolated the culture medium into exosomes and other components from the culture medium. Only GTF2H2-enriched exosomes could inhibit the viability, migration, tube formation, and permeability of HUVECs. Our results suggest that overexpressing GTF2H2 had no effect on HUVECs, while GTF2H2 enriched exosomes from Huh7 cells could inhibit HUVEC phenotypes such as proliferation and migration. Therefore, GTF2H2-enriched exosomes can possibly be utilized as a novel drug for treating HCC and also serve as a potential molecular target for inhibiting tumor angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenkun Li
- Beijing Clinical Research Institute, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 95 Yong-An Road, Xi-Cheng District, Beijing 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanmeng Li
- Beijing Clinical Research Institute, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 95 Yong-An Road, Xi-Cheng District, Beijing 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Qin Ouyang
- Beijing Clinical Research Institute, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 95 Yong-An Road, Xi-Cheng District, Beijing 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaojin Li
- Beijing Clinical Research Institute, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 95 Yong-An Road, Xi-Cheng District, Beijing 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian Huang
- Beijing Clinical Research Institute, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, No. 95 Yong-An Road, Xi-Cheng District, Beijing 100050, People's Republic of China.
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Griffith DOL. Genomic and transcriptomic somatic alterations of hepatocellular carcinoma in non-cirrhotic livers. Cancer Genet 2022; 264-265:90-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cancergen.2022.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Macias RI, Monte MJ, Serrano MA, González-Santiago JM, Martín-Arribas I, Simão AL, Castro RE, González-Gallego J, Mauriz JL, Marin JJ. Impact of aging on primary liver cancer: epidemiology, pathogenesis and therapeutics. Aging (Albany NY) 2021; 13:23416-23434. [PMID: 34633987 PMCID: PMC8544321 DOI: 10.18632/aging.203620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Aging involves progressive physiological and metabolic reprogramming to adapt to gradual deterioration of organs and functions. This includes mechanisms of defense against pre-malignant transformations. Thus, certain tumors are more prone to appear in elderly patients. This is the case of the two most frequent types of primary liver cancer, i.e., hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA). Accordingly, aging hallmarks, such as genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, altered proteostasis, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, exhaustion of stem cell niches, impaired intracellular communication, and deregulated nutrient sensing can play an important role in liver carcinogenesis in the elders. In addition, increased liver fragility determines a worse response to risk factors, which more frequently affect the aged population. This, together with the difficulty to carry out an early detection of HCC and iCCA, accounts for the late diagnosis of these tumors, which usually occurs in patients with approximately 60 and 70 years, respectively. Furthermore, there has been a considerable controversy on what treatment should be used in the management of HCC and iCCA in elderly patients. The consensus reached by numerous studies that have investigated the feasibility and safety of different curative and palliative therapeutic approaches in elders with liver tumors is that advanced age itself is not a contraindication for specific treatments, although the frequent presence of comorbidities in these individuals should be taken into consideration for their management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocio I.R. Macias
- Experimental Hepatology and Drug Targeting (HEVEPHARM) Group, University of Salamanca, IBSAL, Salamanca, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Carlos III National Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria J. Monte
- Experimental Hepatology and Drug Targeting (HEVEPHARM) Group, University of Salamanca, IBSAL, Salamanca, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Carlos III National Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria A. Serrano
- Experimental Hepatology and Drug Targeting (HEVEPHARM) Group, University of Salamanca, IBSAL, Salamanca, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Carlos III National Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús M. González-Santiago
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital of Salamanca, IBSAL, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Isabel Martín-Arribas
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital of Salamanca, IBSAL, Salamanca, Spain
| | - André L. Simão
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Rui E. Castro
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Javier González-Gallego
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED), University of León, León, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Carlos III National Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
| | - José L. Mauriz
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED), University of León, León, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Carlos III National Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose J.G. Marin
- Experimental Hepatology and Drug Targeting (HEVEPHARM) Group, University of Salamanca, IBSAL, Salamanca, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Carlos III National Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
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A scalable and reproducible preparation for the antitumor protein TLC, a human-derived telomerase inhibitor. Protein Expr Purif 2021; 187:105942. [PMID: 34284069 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2021.105942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Telomerase, which is overexpressed in approximately 90% of liver cancer cells, is an ideal target for anti-liver cancer therapy. LPTS, a putative liver tumor suppressor, is the only human-derived protein that can bind telomerase directly and inhibit the extension of telomere activity. Our previous studies demonstrated that TAT-LPTS-LC (TLC), a recombinant protein fused by the C-terminal 133-328 fragment of LPTS and TAT peptides, could be delivered into cells to inhibit telomerase-positive hepatoma cell growth in vitro and in vivo with very low toxicity. In the present study, E. coli strains which expressed TLC in abundance were screened and cultured in a laboratory bioreactor. A reproducible protein separation process was built, and this process was suitable for industrial amplification. The yields of TLC protein were up to 184 mg in one batch with a purity of approximately 95%. The purified TLC protein had a similar inhibitory effect on telomerase activity in vitro compared with those purified by Ni-affinity chromatography. Furthermore, TLC protein could be delivered into the cell nucleus to increase the doubling time of the cell and suppress cell growth in telomerase-positive liver cancer cell lines. Cell growth inhibition was negatively correlated with telomere length, suggesting that TLC is a highly targeted telomerase-telomere anticancer agent. These results will contribute to future preclinical studies of the TLC protein.
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Li Y, Xu A, Jia S, Huang J. Recent advances in the molecular mechanism of sex disparity in hepatocellular carcinoma. Oncol Lett 2019; 17:4222-4228. [PMID: 30988804 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2019.10127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is more frequently observed and aggressive in men compared with women. Increasing evidence demonstrates that the sex disparity appears to be mediated by the stimulatory effects of androgens and the protective effects of estrogen in the development and progression of HCC. In the past few decades, studies on the sex difference of HCC mainly focused on the effect of sex hormones on the transactivation of hepatitis B virus X protein and the release of inflammatory cytokines, and these studies have further intensified in recent years. Sex hormones are also involved in genetic alterations and DNA damage repair in hepatocytes through binding to their specific cellular receptors and affecting the corresponding signaling pathways. Furthermore, the theory of sex chromosomes participating in HCC has been considered. The present review discussed the recent advances in the molecular mechanisms of sex disparity in HCC, with the aim of improving the understanding of the underlying critical factors and exploring more effective methods for the prevention and treatment of HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanmeng Li
- Experimental Center, Liver Research Center, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China.,National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
| | - Anjian Xu
- Experimental Center, Liver Research Center, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China.,National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
| | - Siyu Jia
- Experimental Center, Liver Research Center, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China.,National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
| | - Jian Huang
- Experimental Center, Liver Research Center, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100050, P.R. China.,National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing 100050, P.R. China
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Huang A, Zhao X, Yang XR, Li FQ, Zhou XL, Wu K, Zhang X, Sun QM, Cao Y, Zhu HM, Wang XD, Yang HM, Wang J, Tang ZY, Hou Y, Fan J, Zhou J. Circumventing intratumoral heterogeneity to identify potential therapeutic targets in hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2017; 67:293-301. [PMID: 28323123 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Identifying target genetic mutations in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) for therapy is made challenging by intratumoral heterogeneity. Circulating cell-free DNAs (cfDNA) may contain a more complete mutational spectrum compared to a single tumor sample. This study aimed to identify the most efficient strategy to identify all the mutations within heterogeneous HCCs. METHODS Whole exome sequencing (WES) and targeted deep sequencing (TDS) were carried out in 32 multi-regional tumor samples from five patients. Matched preoperative cfDNAs were sequenced accordingly. Intratumoral heterogeneity was measured using the average percentage of non-ubiquitous mutations (present in parts of tumor regions). Profiling efficiencies of single tumor specimen and cfDNA were compared. The strategy with the highest performance was used to screen for actionable mutations. RESULTS Variable levels of heterogeneity with branched and parallel evolution patterns were observed. The heterogeneity decreased at higher sequencing depth of TDS compared to measurements by WES (28.1% vs. 34.9%, p<0.01) but remained unchanged when additional samples were analyzed. TDS of single tumor specimen identified an average of 70% of the total mutations from multi-regional tissues. Although genome profiling efficiency of cfDNA increased with sequencing depth, an average of 47.2% total mutations were identified using TDS, suggesting that tissue samples outperformed it. TDS of single tumor specimen in 66 patients and cfDNAs in four unresectable HCCs showed that 38.6% (26/66 and 1/4) of patients carried mutations that were potential therapeutic targets. CONCLUSIONS TDS of single tumor specimen could identify actionable mutations targets for therapy in HCC. cfDNA may serve as secondary alternative in profiling HCC genome. LAY SUMMARY Targeted deep sequencing of single tumor specimen is a more efficient method to identify mutations in hepatocellular carcinoma made from mixed subtypes compared to circulating cell-free DNA in blood. cfDNA may serve as secondary alternative in profiling HCC genome. Identifying mutations may help clinicians choose targeted therapy for better individual treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ao Huang
- Liver Surgery Department, Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion (Fudan University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China; China National Genebank-Shenzhen, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Xin-Rong Yang
- Liver Surgery Department, Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion (Fudan University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Fu-Qiang Li
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China; China National Genebank-Shenzhen, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Xin-Lan Zhou
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China; China National Genebank-Shenzhen, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Kui Wu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China; China National Genebank-Shenzhen, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Liver Surgery Department, Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion (Fudan University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qi-Man Sun
- Liver Surgery Department, Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion (Fudan University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Ya Cao
- Cancer Research Institute, Central South University, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Hong-Mei Zhu
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China; BGI-Tianjin, Tianjin 300308, China
| | - Xiang-Dong Wang
- Zhongshan Hospital Institute of Clinical Science, Shanghai Institute of Clinical Bioinformatics, Fudan University Center for Clinical Bioinformatics, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Huan-Ming Yang
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China; James D. Watson Institute of Genome Sciences, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jian Wang
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China; James D. Watson Institute of Genome Sciences, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Zhao-You Tang
- Liver Surgery Department, Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion (Fudan University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yong Hou
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China; China National Genebank-Shenzhen, BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China.
| | - Jia Fan
- Liver Surgery Department, Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion (Fudan University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Jian Zhou
- Liver Surgery Department, Liver Cancer Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion (Fudan University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200032, China; Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
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