Tetramethylpyrazine inhibits the proliferation of acute lymphocytic leukemia cell lines via decrease in GSK-3β

Chuanxiong Rhizoma extracts prevent liver fibrosis via targeting CTCF-c-MYC-H19 pathway

Objective

Hepatic fibrosis has been widely considered as a conjoint consequence of almost all chronic liver diseases. Chuanxiong Rhizoma (Chuanxiong in Chinese, CX) is a traditional Chinese herbal product to prevent cerebrovascular, gynecologic and hepatic diseases. Our previous study found that CX extracts significantly reduced collagen contraction force of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). Here, this study aimed to compare the protection of different CX extracts on bile duct ligation (BDL)-induced liver fibrosis and investigate plausible underlying mechanisms.

Methods

The active compounds of CX extracts were identified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Network pharmacology was used to determine potential targets of CX against hepatic fibrosis. Bile duct hyperplasia and liver fibrosis were evaluated by serologic testing and histopathological evaluation. The expression of targets of interest was determined by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and Western blot.

Results

Different CX extracts were identified by tetramethylpyrazine, ferulic acid and senkyunolide A. Based on the network pharmacological analysis, 42 overlap targets were obtained via merging the candidates targets of CX and liver fibrosis. Different aqueous, alkaloid and phthalide extracts of CX (CXAE, CXAL and CXPHL) significantly inhibited diffuse severe bile duct hyperplasia and thus suppressed hepatic fibrosis by decreasing CCCTC binding factor (CTCF)-c-MYC-long non-coding RNA H19 (H19) pathway in the BDL-induced mouse model. Meanwhile, CX extracts, especially CXAL and CXPHL also suppressed CTCF-c-MYC-H19 pathway and inhibited ductular reaction in cholangiocytes stimulated with taurocholate acid (TCA), lithocholic acid (LCA) and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), as illustrated by decreased bile duct proliferation markers.

Conclusion

Our data supported that different CX extracts, especially CXAL and CXPHL significantly alleviated hepatic fibrosis and bile duct hyperplasia via inhibiting CTCF-c-MYC-H19 pathway, providing novel insights into the anti-fibrotic mechanism of CX.

An Overview of Tetramethylpyrazine (Ligustrazine) and its Derivatives as Potent Anti-Alzheimer’s Disease Agents

Abstract:

Tetramethylpyrazine (TMP), or ligustrazine, is an alkaloid isolated from the Chinese herb Ligusticum wallichii. It is known for its broad-spectrum medicinal properties against several diseases, and various studies have shown that it can modulate diverse biological targets and signaling pathways to produce neuroprotective effects, especially against Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This has attracted significant research attention evaluating TMP as a potent multitarget anti-AD agent. This review compiles the results of studies assessing the neuroprotective mechanisms exerted by TMP as well as its derivatives prepared using a multi-target-directed ligand strategy to explore its multitarget modulating properties. The present review also highlights the work done on the design, synthesis, structure-activity relationships, and mechanisms of some potent TMP derivatives that have shown promising anti-AD activities. These derivatives were designed, synthesized, and evaluated to develop anti-AD molecules with enhanced biological and pharmacokinetic activities compared to TMP. This review article paves the way for the exploration and development of TMP and TMP derivatives as an effective treatment for AD.

Tetramethylpyrazine: A review on its mechanisms and functions

Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort (known as Chuanxiong in China, CX) is one of the most widely used and long-standing medicinal herbs in China. Tetramethylpyrazine (TMP) is an alkaloid and one of the active components of CX. Over the past few decades, TMP has been proven to possess several pharmacological properties. It has been used to treat a variety of diseases with excellent therapeutic effects. Here, the pharmacological characteristics and molecular mechanism of TMP in recent years are reviewed, with an emphasis on the signal-regulation mechanism of TMP. This review shows that TMP has many physiological functions, including anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptosis properties; autophagy regulation; vasodilation; angiogenesis regulation; mitochondrial damage suppression; endothelial protection; reduction of proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells; and neuroprotection. At present, TMP is used in treating cardiovascular, nervous, and digestive system conditions, cancer, and other conditions and has achieved good curative effects. The therapeutic mechanism of TMP involves multiple targets, multiple pathways, and bidirectional regulation. TMP is, thus, a promising drug with great research potential.

Tetramethylpyrazine: A Review of Its Antitumor Potential and Mechanisms

Cancer remains a major public health threat. The mitigation of the associated morbidity and mortality remains a major research focus. From a molecular biological perspective, cancer is defined as uncontrolled cell division and abnormal cell growth caused by various gene mutations. Therefore, there remains an urgent need to develop safe and effective antitumor drugs. The antitumor effect of plant extracts, which are characterized by relatively low toxicity and adverse effect, has attracted significant attention. For example, increasing attention has been paid to the antitumor effects of tetramethylpyrazine (TMP), the active component of the Chinese medicine Chuanqiong, which can affect tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, metastasis, and angiogenesis, as well as reverse chemotherapeutic resistance in neoplasms, thereby triggering antitumor effects. Moreover, TMP can be used in combination with chemotherapeutic agents to enhance their effects and reduce the side effect associated with chemotherapy. Herein, we review the antitumor effects of TMP to provide a theoretical basis and foundation for the further exploration of its underlying antitumor mechanisms and promoting its clinical application.

GSK-3: a multifaceted player in acute leukemias

Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) consists of two isoforms (α and β) that were originally linked to glucose metabolism regulation. However, GSK-3 is also involved in several signaling pathways controlling many different key functions in healthy cells. GSK-3 is a unique kinase in that its isoforms are constitutively active, while they are inactivated mainly through phosphorylation at Ser residues by a variety of upstream kinases. In the early 1990s, GSK-3 emerged as a key player in cancer cell pathophysiology. Since active GSK-3 promotes destruction of multiple oncogenic proteins (e.g., β-catenin, c-Myc, Mcl-1) it was considered to be a tumor suppressor. Accordingly, GSK-3 is frequently inactivated in human cancer via aberrant regulation of upstream signaling pathways. More recently, however, it has emerged that GSK-3 isoforms display also oncogenic properties, as they up-regulate pathways critical for neoplastic cell proliferation, survival, and drug-resistance. The regulatory roles of GSK-3 isoforms in cell cycle, apoptosis, DNA repair, tumor metabolism, invasion, and metastasis reflect the therapeutic relevance of these kinases and provide the rationale for combining GSK-3 inhibitors with other targeted drugs. Here, we discuss the multiple and often conflicting roles of GSK-3 isoforms in acute leukemias. We also review the current status of GSK-3 inhibitor development for innovative leukemia therapy.

Tetramethylpyrazine inhibits proliferation of colon cancer cells in vitro

BACKGROUND

Colon cancer is one of the most common malignancies worldwide, and chemotherapy is a widely used strategy in colon cancer clinical therapy. However, chemotherapy resistance is a major cause of disease recurrence and progression in colon cancer, and thus novel drugs for treatment are urgently needed. Tetramethylpyrazine (TMP), a component of the traditional Chinese medicine Chuanxiong Hort, has been proven to exhibit a beneficial effect in tumors.

AIM

To investigate the potential anticancer activity of TMP in colon cancer and its underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Colon cancer cells were incubated with different concentrations of TMP. Cell viability was evaluated by crystal violet staining assay and cell counting kit-8 assay, and cell apoptosis and cell cycle were assessed by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

TMP significantly inhibited the proliferation of colon cancer cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. In addition, flow cytometry revealed that TMP induced cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase. TMP treatment caused early stage apoptosis in SW480 cells, whereas it caused late stage apoptosis in HCT116 cells.

CONCLUSION

Our studies demonstrated that TMP inhibits the proliferation of colon cancer cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner by inducing apoptosis and arresting the cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase. Our findings suggest that TMP might serve as a potential novel therapeutic drug in the treatment of human colon cancer.

Ligustrazine Suppresses Platelet-Derived Growth Factor-BB-Induced Pulmonary Artery Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation and Inflammation by Regulating the PI3K/AKT Signaling Pathway

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a serious pulmonary vascular disease. Excessive proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) plays an important role in the course of this disease. Ligustrazine is an alkaloid monomer extracted from the rhizome of the herb Ligusticum chuanxiong. It is often used to treat cardiovascular diseases, but its effect on PAH has rarely been reported. This study aims to explore the protective effect and mechanism of ligustrazine on PAH. In the in vivo experiment, monocrotaline (MCT) was used to induce PAH in rats, and then ligustrazine (40, 80, 160 mg/kg/day) or sildenafil (25 mg/kg/day) was administered. Four weeks later, hemodynamic changes, right ventricular hypertrophy index, lung morphological characteristics, inflammatory factors, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), and AKT expression were evaluated. In addition, primary rat PASMCs were extracted by the tissue adhesion method, a proliferation model was established with platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB), and the cells were treated with ligustrazine to investigate its effects on cell proliferation, inflammation, and cell cycle distribution. The results indicate that ligustrazine can markedly alleviate right ventricular systolic pressure, right ventricular hypertrophy, pulmonary vascular remodeling, and inflammation caused by MCT, and that it decreased PI3K and AKT phosphorylation expression. Moreover, ligustrazine can inhibit the proliferation and inflammation of PASMCs and arrest the progression of G0/G1 to S phase through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Therefore, we conclude that ligustrazine may inhibit the proliferation and inflammation of PASMCs by regulating the activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, thereby attenuating MCT-induced PAH in rats. Collectively, these findings suggest that ligustrazine may be a promising therapeutic for PAH.

Tetramethylpyrazine regulates breast cancer cell viability, migration, invasion and apoptosis by affecting the activity of Akt and caspase-3

Tetramethylpyrazine (TMP), an effective component of the traditional Chinese medicine Chuanxiong Hort, has been proven to exhibit a beneficial effect in a number of types of malignant epithelial cancer. However, the mode of action of TMP on breast cancer cells remains unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate the regulatory effect of TMP on breast cancer cells and its underlying molecular mechanism of action. Different concentrations of TMP were used to treat breast cancer cells, and subsequently, the effects on the viability, apoptosis, and migration and invasion abilities were determined. In addition, the expression and activity levels of the protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathway and caspase-3 were explored via reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis. The results of the present study revealed that TMP significantly inhibited the viability, migration and invasion rates, and increased the apoptosis of MDA-MB-231 cells in a dose-dependent manner. The minimum effective dose was ~1,600 µM. Additional mechanistic studies demonstrated that 1,600 and 3,200 µM TMP significantly decreased the gene expression and activity of Akt and increased the activity of caspase-3. This mechanism may be responsible for the inhibition of viability, migration and invasion, and activation of apoptosis in breast cancer cells. The results of the present study suggested that TMP may be used in chemotherapy against breast cancer.

A novel agent exerts antitumor activity in breast cancer cells by targeting mitochondrial complex II

The mitochondrial respiratory chain, including mitochondrial complex II, has emerged as a potential target for cancer therapy. In the present study, a novel conjugate of danshensu (DSS) and tetramethylpyrazine (TMP), DT-010, was synthesized. Our results showed that DT-010 is more potent than its parental compounds separately or in combination, in inhibiting the proliferation of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells by inducing cytotoxicity and promoting cell cycle arrest. It also inhibited the growth of 4T1 breast cancer cells in vivo. DT-010 suppressed the fundamental parameters of mitochondrial function in MCF-7 cells, including basal respiration, ATP turnover, maximal respiration. Treatment with DT-010 in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells resulted in the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and decreased ATP production. DT-010 also promoted ROS generation, while treatment with ROS scavenger, NAC (N-acetyl-L-cysteine), reversed DT-010-induced cytotoxicity. Further study showed that DT-010 suppressed succinate-induced mitochondrial respiration and impaired mitochondrial complex II enzyme activity indicating that DT-010 may inhibit mitochondrial complex II. Overall, our results suggested that the antitumor activity of DT-010 is associated with inhibition of mitochondrial complex II, which triggers ROS generation and mitochondrial dysfunction in breast cancer cells.

Tetramethylpyrazine reverses intracerebroventricular streptozotocin-induced memory deficits by inhibiting GSK-3β

Brain dysfunction, especially cognitive impairment, is one of the main complications in Alzheimer's disease (AD), which threatens the health of 46.8 million people worldwide. At present, the pathogenesis of cognitive dysfunction is only partially understood, and effective therapies for memory loss in AD remain elusive. Tetramethylpyrazine (TMP) is one of the major bioactive compounds purified from Chuanxiong, a Chinese herb used for the treatment of neurovascular and cardiovascular diseases. The neuroprotective properties of TMP are evident in some neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease. However, whether TMP plays a neuroprotective role in AD is still unknown. Here, we report that 2-week treatment with TMP rescued both short-term and long-term fear memory impairment induced by intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin in a well-known AD rat model. Administration of TMP also restored spatial learning and memory retention abilities in streptozotocin-injected rats. Furthermore, TMP inhibited the activity of GSK-3β, an important kinase that mediates hippocampal synaptic and memory disorders in diabetes mellitus. Finally, we found that TMP treatment restored the function of cholinergic neurons. Our data suggest that dietary uptake of TMP can provide protection against memory loss in AD, and the inhibition of GSK-3β may play an important role in this protective effect.

Tetramethylpyrazine inhibits prostate cancer progression by downregulation of forkhead box M1

Tetramethylpyrazine (TMP) has exhibited various anticancer effects. However, its ability to inhibit proliferation, migration, and invasion of prostate cancer (PCa) PC-3 cells is still unclear. In the present study, different concentrations of TMP were co-incubated with PC-3 cells. The pcDNA-FOXM1 plasmid was transfected into cells before treatment with 500 µg/l TMP. The proliferative, migratory and invasive abilities of PC-3 cells were tested by MTT assay, wound healing assay and colony formation assay. Western blotting was used to investigate the expression of FOXM1. We found that, compared with the control, the proliferative, migratory and invasive abilities of PC-3 cells were decreased after incubation with different concentrations of TMP (P<0.01). The expression of FOXM1 was decreased in TMP-treated PC-3 cells (P<0.01). In addition, overexpression of FOXM1 reversed TMP-mediated inhibition of proliferation, migration and invasion of PC-3 cells. We also found that TMP inhibited PCa growth in vivo in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggest that TMP inhibits PC-3 cell proliferation, migration and invasion by downregulation of FOXM1.

Tetramethylpyrazine-mediated regulation of CXCR4 in retinoblastoma is sensitive to cell density

Retinoblastoma is the most common ocular tumor in children, and it causes extensive damage. Current treatment options for retinoblastoma include surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and cryotherapy. However, the majority of chemotherapy medicines cause complications and side effects that lead to severe impairment of patient health. Previous studies have reported that tetramethylpyrazine (TMP), which is an extract of the Chinese herbal medicine Chuanxiong, reduces the risk of multidrug resistance in chemotherapy and inhibits the proliferation and metastasis of various types of cancer cells. However, the underlying molecular mechanism of TMP in retinoblastoma remains unclear. The current study demonstrated that C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) was expressed in WERI-Rb1 cells and in retinoblastoma. Using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting techniques, the current study demonstrated that TMP significantly downregulated the expression of CXCR4 in WERI-Rb1 cells cultured at high density, whereas it had a minor effect in low-density WERI-Rb1 cells; additionally, this effect occurred in a time-dependent manner. TMP inhibited the proliferation of WERI-Rb1 cells as effectively as a CXCR4 antagonist, AMD3100, consistent with a role of CXCR4 in cancer development. Notably, TMP did not affect the cell cycle of cells cultured at low density (1×10⁵ cells/ml), whereas it induced G1-phase arrest in high-density cells (7.5×10⁵ cells/ml; P<0.05). In addition, the expression of CXCR4 in primary rat retinal neurocytes was significantly downregulated by TMP treatment, and this treatment protected primary rat retinal neurocytes from H₂O₂-induced damage. Thus, the results of this study indicate that TMP is a potential candidate for use in treatment of retinoblastoma, and also provides novel insights into the mechanisms of the anti-cancer and neuroprotective effects of this extract.

Molecular pathway activation features of pediatric acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and acute lymphoblast leukemia (ALL) cells

Acute lymphoblast leukemia (ALL) is characterized by overproduction of immature white blood cells in the bone marrow. ALL is most common in the childhood and has high (>80%) cure rate. In contrast, acute myeloid leukemia (AML) has far greater mortality rate than the ALL and is most commonly affecting older adults. However, AML is a leading cause of childhood cancer mortality. In this study, we compare gene expression and molecular pathway activation patterns in three normal blood, seven pediatric ALL and seven pediatric AML bone marrow samples. We identified 172/94 and 148/31 characteristic gene expression/pathway activation signatures, clearly distinguishing pediatric ALL and AML cells, respectively, from the normal blood. The pediatric AML and ALL cells differed by 139/34 gene expression/pathway activation biomarkers. For the adult 30 AML and 17 normal blood samples, we found 132/33 gene expression/pathway AML-specific features, of which only 7/2 were common for the adult and pediatric AML and, therefore, age-independent. At the pathway level, we found more differences than similarities between the adult and pediatric forms. These findings suggest that the adult and pediatric AMLs may require different treatment strategies.

Mechanisms and Clinical Application of Tetramethylpyrazine (an Interesting Natural Compound Isolated from Ligusticum Wallichii): Current Status and Perspective

Tetramethylpyrazine, a natural compound from Ligusticum wallichii (Chuan Xiong), has been extensively used in China for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases for about 40 years. Because of its effectiveness in multisystems, especially in cardiovascular, its pharmacological action, clinical application, and the structural modification have attracted broad attention. In this paper its mechanisms of action, the clinical status, and synthetic derivatives will be reviewed briefly.