A systematic review of the effect of running shoes on running economy, performance and biomechanics: analysis by brand and model

This systematic review aims to synthesise the effects of current shoe models in each shoe category and their specific features on running economy, performance and biomechanics. Electronic databases such as Web of Science, SPORTDiscuss, PubMed and Scopus were used to identify studies from 2015 to date. Due to the existing lack of consensus to define running shoes, only studies that specified the shoe brand and models used to assess their effect over runners with a certain level of fitness and training routine were included. Quality assessment of cross-sectional and intervention studies was conducted by three independent raters using a modified version of the Quality Index and the PEDro scale, respectively. A total of 36 articles were finally included, involving the analysis of 61 different shoe models over 10 different topics (i.e., running economy, running performance, spatiotemporal parameters, ground reaction forces, joint stiffness, achilles tendon, plantar pressure, tibiofemoral load, foot strike pattern and joint coordination). With this review, runners and practitioners in the field that are concerned about selecting a suitable shoe for performance, training, or injury prevention functionality have clear information about the effects of the current shoe models and their specific features.

Increased footwear comfort is associated with improved running economy - a systematic review and meta-analysis

Footwear with or without custom foot orthotics have the potential to improve comfort, but the link with running performance needs further investigation. We systematically reviewed the association of footwear comfort on running economy in recreational runners. Nine electronic databases were searched from inception to March 2020. Eligible studies investigated both direct outcome measures of running performance (e.g. running speed) and/or physiological measures (e.g. running economy (RE)) alongside comfort for each footwear condition tested. Methodological quality was assessed using the "Effective Public Health Practice Project" (EPHPP). RE during submaximal running was the most common physiological outcome reported in 4 of the 6 eligible studies. The absolute difference in RE between the most and least comfortable footwear condition was computed, and meta-analysis was conducted using a random effect model. The most comfortable footwear is associated with a reduction in oxygen consumption (MD: -2.06 mL.kg^-1.min^-1, 95%CI: -3.71, -0.42, P = 0.01) while running at a set submaximal speed. There was no significant heterogeneity (I² = 0%, P = 0.82). EPHPP quality assessment demonstrated weak quality of the studies, due to reporting bias and failing to disclose the psychometric properties of the outcome measures. It can be concluded with moderate certainty that improved RE in recreational athletes is associated with wearing more comfortable footwear compared to less comfortable footwear.HighlightsThis systematic review reports on the association of footwear comfort with running economy in recreational runners.Running economy during constant submaximal running is likely improved in recreational runners wearing more comfortable compared to less comfortable footwear.This finding is based on a meta-analysis, including four studies, showing a small but statistically significant decreased oxygen consumption at steady state speeds while wearing the most comfortable footwear.

Running Injury Paradigms and Their Influence on Footwear Design Features and Runner Assessment Methods: A Focused Review to Advance Evidence-Based Practice for Running Medicine Clinicians

Many runners seek health professional advice regarding footwear recommendations to reduce injury risk. Unfortunately, many clinicians, as well as runners, have ideas about how to select running footwear that are not scientifically supported. This is likely because much of the research on running footwear has not been highly accessible outside of the technical footwear research circle. Therefore, the purpose of this narrative review is to update clinical readers on the state of the science for assessing runners and recommending running footwear that facilitate the goals of the runner. We begin with a review of basic footwear construction and the features thought to influence biomechanics relevant to the running medicine practitioner. Subsequently, we review the four main paradigms that have driven footwear design and recommendation with respect to injury risk reduction: Pronation Control, Impact Force Modification, Habitual Joint (Motion) Path, and Comfort Filter. We find that evidence in support of any paradigm is generally limited. In the absence of a clearly supported paradigm, we propose that in general clinicians should recommend footwear that is lightweight, comfortable, and has minimal pronation control technology. We further encourage clinicians to arm themselves with the basic understanding of the known effects of specific footwear features on biomechanics in order to better recommend footwear on a patient-by-patient basis.

Effects of Montmorency Tart Cherry and Blueberry Juice on Cardiometabolic Outcomes in Healthy Individuals: Protocol for a 3-Arm Placebo Randomized Controlled Trial

Cardiometabolic disease is recognized as the predominant cause of global mortality and healthcare expenditure. Whilst pharmaceutical interventions are effective in the short term, their long-term efficacy remain equivocal and their associated side-effects are concerning. Owing to their high levels of anthocyanins, Montmorency tart cherries and blueberries have been cited as potentially important natural treatment/preventative modalities for cardiometabolic disease. This study proposed a randomized controlled trial, aims to test the effects of consumption of Montmorency tart cherry and blueberry juice on cardiometabolic outcomes compared to placebo. This 20-day, parallel, single-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial will recruit 45 individuals, who will be assigned to receive 60 mL per day of either Montmorency tart cherry juice, blueberry juice or a cherry/blueberry flavoured placebo. The primary study outcome is the between-group difference in systolic blood pressure from baseline to post-intervention. Secondary outcome measures will be between-group differences in anthropometric, energy expenditure and substrate oxidation (during rest and physical activity), haematological, blood pressure/resting heart rate, psychological wellbeing and sleep efficacy indices. Statistical analysis will be conducted on an intention-to-treat basis. This study has been granted ethical approval by the University of Central Lancashire, Health Research Ethics Committee (ref: HEALTH 0016) and formally registered as a trial. Dissemination of the study findings from this investigation will be through publication in a leading peer-reviewed journal.

The effects of footwear midsole longitudinal bending stiffness on running economy and ground contact biomechanics: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This study aimed to address the effects of increased longitudinal bending stiffness (LBS) on running economy (RE) and running biomechanics. A systematic search on four electronic databases (Pubmed, WOS, Medline and Scopus) was conducted on 26 May 2021. Twelve studies met the inclusion criteria and were included. Standardised mean difference with 95% confidence intervals (CI) between footwear with increased LBS vs. non-increased LBS conditions and effect sizes were calculated. To assess the potential effects of moderator variables (type and length plate, increased LBS, shoe mass and running speed) on the main outcome variable (i.e. RE), subgroup analyses were performed. Increased LBS improved RE (SMD = -0.43 [95% CI -0.58, -0.28], Z = 5.60, p < 0.001) compared to non-increased LBS. Significant increases of stride length (SMD = 0.29 [95% CI 0.10, 0.49], Z = 2.93, p = 0.003) and contact time (SMD = 0.17 [95% CI 0.03, 0.31], Z = 2.32, p = 0.02) were found when LBS was increased. RE improved to a greater degree at higher running speeds with footwear with increased LBS. RE improved 3.45% with curve plate compared to no-plate condition without improvements with flat plate shoes. When shoe mass was matched between footwear with increased LBS vs. non-increased LBS conditions, RE improved (3.15%). However, when shoe mass was not controlled (experimental condition with ∼35 grams extra), a significant small improvement was found. These RE improvements appear along with an increase of stride length and contact time. Shoe mass, type of plate (flat or curve) and running speed should be taken into consideration when designing a shoe aimed at improving long-distance running performance.

Footwear designed to enhance energy return improves running economy compared to a minimalist footwear: does it matter for running performance?

The present study compared the effects of a footwear designed to enhance energy return (thermoplastic polyurethane, TPU) vs minimalist shoes on running economy (RE) and endurance performance. In this counterbalanced and crossover design study, 11 recreational male runners performed two submaximal constant-speed running tests and two 3-km time-trials with the two shoe models. Oxygen uptake was measured during submaximal constant-speed running tests in order to determine the RE at 12 km/h and oxygen cost of running (CTO2) at individual average speed sustained during the 3-km running time-trials wearing either of the two shoes. Our results revealed that RE was improved (2.4%) with TPU shoes compared with minimalist shoes (P=0.01). However, there was no significant difference for CTO2 (P=0.61) and running performance (P=0.52) comparing the TPU (710±60 s) and the minimalist (718±63 s) shoe models. These novel findings demonstrate that shoes with enhanced mechanical energy return (i.e. TPU) produced a lower energy cost of running at low (i.e., 12 km/h) but not at high speeds (i.e., average speed sustained during the 3-km running time-trial, ∼15 km/h), ultimately resulting in similar running performance compared to the minimalist shoe.

Foot Strike Angle Prediction and Pattern Classification Using LoadsolTM Wearable Sensors: A Comparison of Machine Learning Techniques

The foot strike pattern performed during running is an important variable for runners, performance practitioners, and industry specialists. Versatile, wearable sensors may provide foot strike information while encouraging the collection of diverse information during ecological running. The purpose of the current study was to predict foot strike angle and classify foot strike pattern from Loadsol^TM wearable pressure insoles using three machine learning techniques (multiple linear regression―MR, conditional inference tree―TREE, and random forest―FRST). Model performance was assessed using three-dimensional kinematics as a ground-truth measure. The prediction-model accuracy was similar for the regression, inference tree, and random forest models (RMSE: MR = 5.16°, TREE = 4.85°, FRST = 3.65°; MAPE: MR = 0.32°, TREE = 0.45°, FRST = 0.33°), though the regression and random forest models boasted lower maximum precision (13.75° and 14.3°, respectively) than the inference tree (19.02°). The classification performance was above 90% for all models (MR = 90.4%, TREE = 93.9%, and FRST = 94.1%). There was an increased tendency to misclassify mid foot strike patterns in all models, which may be improved with the inclusion of more mid foot steps during model training. Ultimately, wearable pressure insoles in combination with simple machine learning techniques can be used to predict and classify a runner’s foot strike with sufficient accuracy.