1
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Gibadullin R, Morris RK, Niu J, Sidney J, Sette A, Gellman SH. Thioamide Analogues of MHC I Antigen Peptides. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:25559-25569. [PMID: 37968794 PMCID: PMC10782604 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c05300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
Short, synthetic peptides that are displayed by major histocompatibility complex I (MHC I) can stimulate CD8 T cells in vivo to destroy virus-infected or cancer cells. The development of such peptides as vaccines that provide protective immunity, however, is limited by rapid proteolytic degradation. Introduction of unnatural amino acid residues can suppress MHC I antigen proteolysis, but the modified peptides typically display lower affinity for MHC I and/or diminished ability to activate CD8 T cells relative to native antigen. Here, we report a new strategy for modifying MHC I antigens to enhance resistance to proteolysis while preserving MHC I affinity and T cell activation properties. This approach, replacing backbone amide groups with thioamides, was evaluated in two well-characterized antigens presented by HLA-A2, a common human MHC I. For each antigen, singly modified thioamide analogues retained affinity for HLA-A2 and activated T cells specific for the native antigen, as measured via interferon-γ secretion. In each system, we identified a highly potent triply substituted thioamide antigen ("thio-antigen") that displayed substantial resistance to proteolytic cleavage. Collectively, our results suggest that thio-antigens may represent a general and readily accessible source of potent vaccine candidates that resist degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruslan Gibadullin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
- Present address: Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Rylie K. Morris
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Jiani Niu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - John Sidney
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Alessandro Sette
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
| | - Samuel H. Gellman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
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2
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Synthetic Melanin Acts as Efficient Peptide Carrier in Cancer Vaccine Strategy. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232314975. [PMID: 36499300 PMCID: PMC9738778 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported that a novel peptide vaccine platform, based on synthetic melanin nanoaggregates, triggers strong cytotoxic immune responses and significantly suppresses tumor growth in mice. However, the mechanisms underlying such an efficacy remained poorly described. Herein, we investigated the role of dendritic cells (DCs) in presenting the antigen embedded in the vaccine formulation, as well as the potential stimulatory effect of melanin upon these cells, in vitro by coculture experiments and ELISA/flow cytometry analysis. The vaccine efficiency was evaluated in FLT3-L-/- mice constitutively deficient in DC1, DC2, and pDCs, in Zbtb46DTR chimera mice deficient in DC1 and DC2, and in LangerinDTR mice deficient in dermal DC1 and Langerhans cells. We concluded that DCs, and especially migratory conventional type 1 dendritic cells, seem crucial for mounting the immune response after melanin-based vaccination. We also assessed the protective effect of L-DOPA melanin on peptides from enzymatic digestion, as well as the biodistribution of melanin-peptide nanoaggregates, after subcutaneous injection using [18F]MEL050 PET imaging in mice. L-DOPA melanin proved to act as an efficient carrier for peptides by fully protecting them from enzymatic degradation. L-DOPA melanin did not display any direct stimulatory effects on dendritic cells in vitro. Using PET imaging, we detected melanin-peptide nanoaggregates up to three weeks after subcutaneous injections within the secondary lymphoid tissues, which could explain the sustained immune response observed (up to 4 months) with this vaccine technology.
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3
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Szefczyk M, Ożga K, Drewniak-Świtalska M, Rudzińska-Szostak E, Hołubowicz R, Ożyhar A, Berlicki Ł. Controlling the conformational stability of coiled-coil peptides with a single stereogenic center of a peripheral β-amino acid residue. RSC Adv 2022; 12:4640-4647. [PMID: 35425498 PMCID: PMC8981378 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra00111j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The key issue in the research on foldamers remains the understanding of the relationship between the monomers structure and conformational properties at the oligomer level. In peptidomimetic foldamers, the main goal of which is to mimic the structure of proteins, a main challenge is still better understanding of the folding of peptides and the factors that influence their conformational stability. We probed the impact of the modification of the peptide periphery with trans- and cis-2-aminocyclopentanecarboxylic acid (ACPC) on the structure and stability of the model coiled-coil using circular dichroism (CD), analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (2D NMR). Although, trans-ACPC and cis-ACPC-containing mutants differ by only one peripheral stereogenic center, their conformational stability is strikingly different.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Szefczyk
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 50-370 Wroclaw Poland
| | - Katarzyna Ożga
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 50-370 Wroclaw Poland
| | - Magda Drewniak-Świtalska
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 50-370 Wroclaw Poland
| | - Ewa Rudzińska-Szostak
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 50-370 Wroclaw Poland
| | - Rafał Hołubowicz
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 50-370 Wroclaw Poland
| | - Andrzej Ożyhar
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 50-370 Wroclaw Poland
| | - Łukasz Berlicki
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27 50-370 Wroclaw Poland
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4
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Michalik M, Djahanschiri B, Leo JC, Linke D. An Update on "Reverse Vaccinology": The Pathway from Genomes and Epitope Predictions to Tailored, Recombinant Vaccines. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2022; 2412:45-71. [PMID: 34918241 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1892-9_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In this chapter, we review the computational approaches that have led to a new generation of vaccines in recent years. There are many alternative routes to develop vaccines based on the concept of reverse vaccinology. They all follow the same basic principles-mining available genome and proteome information for antigen candidates, and recombinantly expressing them for vaccine production. Some of the same principles have been used successfully for cancer therapy approaches. In this review, we focus on infectious diseases, describing the general workflow from bioinformatic predictions of antigens and epitopes down to examples where such predictions have been used successfully for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bardya Djahanschiri
- Institute of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Jack C Leo
- Department of Biosciences, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | - Dirk Linke
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
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5
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Gibadullin R, Randall CJ, Sidney J, Sette A, Gellman SH. Backbone Modifications of HLA-A2-Restricted Antigens Induce Diverse Binding and T Cell Activation Outcomes. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:6470-6481. [PMID: 33881854 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
CD8+ T cells express T cell receptors (TCRs) that recognize short peptide antigens in the context of major histocompatibility class I (MHC I) molecules. This recognition process produces an array of cytokine-mediated signals that help to govern immunological responses. Design of biostable MHC I peptide vaccines containing unnatural subunits is desirable, and synthetic antigens in which a native α-amino acid residue is replaced by a homologous β-amino acid residue (native side chain but extended backbone) might be useful in this regard. We have evaluated the impact of α-to-β backbone modification at a single site on T cell-mediated recognition of six clinically important viral and tumor-associated antigens bound to an MHC I. Effects of this modification on MHC I affinity and T cell activation were measured. Many of these modifications diminish or prevent T cell response. However, a number of α/β-peptide antigens were found to mimic the activity of natural antigens or to enhance maximal T cell response, as measured by interferon-γ release. Results from this broad exploratory study advance our understanding of immunological responses to antigens bearing unnatural modifications and suggest that α/β-peptides could be a source of potent and proteolytically stable variants of native antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruslan Gibadullin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Caleb J Randall
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - John Sidney
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Alessandro Sette
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California 92037, United States.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California 92093, United States
| | - Samuel H Gellman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
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6
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Outlaw VK, Kreitler DF, Stelitano D, Porotto M, Moscona A, Gellman SH. Effects of Single α-to-β Residue Replacements on Recognition of an Extended Segment in a Viral Fusion Protein. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:2017-2022. [PMID: 32692914 PMCID: PMC8019249 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Partial replacement of α-amino acid residues with β-amino acid residues has been established as a strategy for preserving target-engagement by helix-forming polypeptides while altering other properties. The impact of β-residue incorporation within polypeptides that adopt less regular conformations, however, has received less attention. The C-terminal heptad repeat (HRC) domains of fusion glycoproteins from pathogenic paramyxoviruses contain a segment that must adopt an extended conformation in order to coassemble with the N-terminal heptad repeat (HRN) domain in the postfusion state and drive a merger of the viral envelope with a target cell membrane. Here, we examine the impact of single α-to-β substitutions within this extended N-terminal segment of an engineered HRC peptide designated VIQKI. Stabilities of hexameric coassemblies formed with the native human parainfluenza virus 3 (HPIV3) HRN have been evaluated, the structures of five coassemblies have been determined, and antiviral efficacies have been measured. Many sites within the extended segment show functional tolerance of α-to-β substitution. These results offer a basis for future development of paramyxovirus infection inhibitors with novel biological activity profiles, possibly including resistance to proteolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor K. Outlaw
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, United States
| | - Dale F. Kreitler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, United States
| | - Debora Stelitano
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, 10032, United States
- Center for Host–Pathogen Interaction, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, 10032, United States
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Matteo Porotto
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, 10032, United States
- Center for Host–Pathogen Interaction, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, 10032, United States
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Anne Moscona
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, 10032, United States
- Center for Host–Pathogen Interaction, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, 10032, United States
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, 10032, United States
- Department of Physiology & Cellular Biophysics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, 10032, United States
| | - Samuel H. Gellman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, United States
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7
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Nigro G, Bourcier S, Lazennec-Schurdevin C, Schmitt E, Marlière P, Mechulam Y. Use of β 3-methionine as an amino acid substrate of Escherichia coli methionyl-tRNA synthetase. J Struct Biol 2019; 209:107435. [PMID: 31862305 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2019.107435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Polypeptides containing β-amino acids are attractive tools for the design of novel proteins having unique properties of medical or industrial interest. Incorporation of β-amino acids in vivo requires the development of efficient aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases specific of these non-canonical amino acids. Here, we have performed a detailed structural and biochemical study of the recognition and use of β3-Met by Escherichia coli methionyl-tRNA synthetase (MetRS). We show that MetRS binds β3-Met with a 24-fold lower affinity but catalyzes the esterification of the non-canonical amino acid onto tRNA with a rate lowered by three orders of magnitude. Accurate measurements of the catalytic parameters required careful consideration of the presence of contaminating α-Met in β3-Met commercial samples. The 1.45 Å crystal structure of the MetRS: β3-Met complex shows that β3-Met binds the enzyme essentially like α-Met, but the carboxylate moiety is mobile and not adequately positioned to react with ATP for aminoacyl adenylate formation. This study provides structural and biochemical bases for engineering MetRS with improved β3-Met aminoacylation capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuliano Nigro
- Laboratoire de Biochimie, BIOC, Ecole polytechnique, CNRS, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Sophie Bourcier
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moléculaire, LCM, Ecole polytechnique, CNRS, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Christine Lazennec-Schurdevin
- Laboratoire de Biochimie, BIOC, Ecole polytechnique, CNRS, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Emmanuelle Schmitt
- Laboratoire de Biochimie, BIOC, Ecole polytechnique, CNRS, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France.
| | - Philippe Marlière
- Xenome Research Group, Institute of Systems and Synthetic Biology, CNRS, UMR8030, UEVE, CEA, GENOPOLE, 5 rue Henri Desbruères, 91030 Evry Cedex, France
| | - Yves Mechulam
- Laboratoire de Biochimie, BIOC, Ecole polytechnique, CNRS, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France.
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8
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Zhang K, Du Y, Si Z, Liu Y, Turvey ME, Raju C, Keogh D, Ruan L, Jothy SL, Reghu S, Marimuthu K, De PP, Ng OT, Mediavilla JR, Kreiswirth BN, Chi YR, Ren J, Tam KC, Liu XW, Duan H, Zhu Y, Mu Y, Hammond PT, Bazan GC, Pethe K, Chan-Park MB. Enantiomeric glycosylated cationic block co-beta-peptides eradicate Staphylococcus aureus biofilms and antibiotic-tolerant persisters. Nat Commun 2019; 10:4792. [PMID: 31636263 PMCID: PMC6803644 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12702-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The treatment of bacterial infections is hindered by the presence of biofilms and metabolically inactive persisters. Here, we report the synthesis of an enantiomeric block co-beta-peptide, poly(amido-D-glucose)-block-poly(beta-L-lysine), with high yield and purity by one-shot one-pot anionic-ring opening (co)polymerization. The co-beta-peptide is bactericidal against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), including replicating, biofilm and persister bacterial cells, and also disperses biofilm biomass. It is active towards community-acquired and hospital-associated MRSA strains which are resistant to multiple drugs including vancomycin and daptomycin. Its antibacterial activity is superior to that of vancomycin in MRSA mouse and human ex vivo skin infection models, with no acute in vivo toxicity in repeated dosing in mice at above therapeutic levels. The copolymer displays bacteria-activated surfactant-like properties, resulting from contact with the bacterial envelope. Our results indicate that this class of non-toxic molecule, effective against different bacterial sub-populations, has promising potential for the treatment of S. aureus infections. The authors report the synthesis of an enantiomeric block co-beta-peptide that kills methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, including biofilm and persister bacterial cells, and disperses biofilms. The copolymer displays antibacterial activity in human ex vivo and mouse in vivo infection models without toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaixi Zhang
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Yu Du
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 155 Yangqiao Road West, 350002, Fuzhou, China
| | - Zhangyong Si
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Yang Liu
- Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
| | - Michelle E Turvey
- Infectious Disease Interdisciplinary Research Group, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research & Technology Centre, 1 Create Way, Singapore, 138602, Singapore
| | - Cheerlavancha Raju
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Damien Keogh
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Lin Ruan
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Subramanion L Jothy
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Sheethal Reghu
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Kalisvar Marimuthu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, 11 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore, 308433, Singapore.,National Centre for Infectious Diseases, 16 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore, 308442, Singapore
| | - Partha Pratim De
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, 11 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore, 308433, Singapore
| | - Oon Tek Ng
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, 11 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore, 308433, Singapore.,National Centre for Infectious Diseases, 16 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore, 308442, Singapore.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 636921, Singapore
| | - José R Mediavilla
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ, 07110, USA
| | - Barry N Kreiswirth
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ, 07110, USA
| | - Yonggui Robin Chi
- Division of Chemistry & Biological Chemistry, School of Physical & Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Singapore
| | - Jinghua Ren
- Cancer Center, Union Hospital, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan, 430022, Hubei, China
| | - Kam C Tam
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Xue-Wei Liu
- Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Division of Chemistry & Biological Chemistry, School of Physical & Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, Singapore, 637371, Singapore
| | - Hongwei Duan
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Yabin Zhu
- Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yuguang Mu
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
| | - Paula T Hammond
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.,Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Guillermo C Bazan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106-9510, USA
| | - Kevin Pethe
- Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore. .,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637551, Singapore. .,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 636921, Singapore.
| | - Mary B Chan-Park
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore. .,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637459, Singapore. .,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 636921, Singapore.
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9
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Cheloha RW, Woodham AW, Bousbaine D, Wang T, Liu S, Sidney J, Sette A, Gellman SH, Ploegh HL. Recognition of Class II MHC Peptide Ligands That Contain β-Amino Acids. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 203:1619-1628. [PMID: 31391235 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Proteins are composed of α-amino acid residues. This consistency in backbone structure likely serves an important role in the display of an enormous diversity of peptides by class II MHC (MHC-II) products, which make contacts with main chain atoms of their peptide cargo. Peptides that contain residues with an extra carbon in the backbone (derived from β-amino acids) have biological properties that differ starkly from those of their conventional counterparts. How changes in the structure of the peptide backbone affect the loading of peptides onto MHC-II or recognition of the resulting complexes by TCRs has not been widely explored. We prepared a library of analogues of MHC-II-binding peptides derived from OVA, in which at least one α-amino acid residue was replaced with a homologous β-amino acid residue. The latter contain an extra methylene unit in the peptide backbone but retain the original side chain. We show that several of these α/β-peptides retain the ability to bind tightly to MHC-II, activate TCR signaling, and induce responses from T cells in mice. One α/β-peptide exhibited enhanced stability in the presence of an endosomal protease relative to the index peptide. Conjugation of this backbone-modified peptide to a camelid single-domain Ab fragment specific for MHC-II enhanced its biological activity. Our results suggest that backbone modification offers a method to modulate MHC binding and selectivity, T cell stimulatory capacity, and susceptibility to processing by proteases such as those found within endosomes where Ag processing occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross W Cheloha
- Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Andrew W Woodham
- Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Djenet Bousbaine
- Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115.,Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142
| | - Tong Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - Shi Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706
| | - John Sidney
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037; and
| | - Alessandro Sette
- Division of Vaccine Discovery, La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037; and.,Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92161
| | - Samuel H Gellman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706;
| | - Hidde L Ploegh
- Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115;
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10
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Miles JJ, Tan MP, Dolton G, Edwards ES, Galloway SA, Laugel B, Clement M, Makinde J, Ladell K, Matthews KK, Watkins TS, Tungatt K, Wong Y, Lee HS, Clark RJ, Pentier JM, Attaf M, Lissina A, Ager A, Gallimore A, Rizkallah PJ, Gras S, Rossjohn J, Burrows SR, Cole DK, Price DA, Sewell AK. Peptide mimic for influenza vaccination using nonnatural combinatorial chemistry. J Clin Invest 2018; 128:1569-1580. [PMID: 29528337 PMCID: PMC5873848 DOI: 10.1172/jci91512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Polypeptide vaccines effectively activate human T cells but suffer from poor biological stability, which confines both transport logistics and in vivo therapeutic activity. Synthetic biology has the potential to address these limitations through the generation of highly stable antigenic "mimics" using subunits that do not exist in the natural world. We developed a platform based on D-amino acid combinatorial chemistry and used this platform to reverse engineer a fully artificial CD8+ T cell agonist that mirrored the immunogenicity profile of a native epitope blueprint from influenza virus. This nonnatural peptide was highly stable in human serum and gastric acid, reflecting an intrinsic resistance to physical and enzymatic degradation. In vitro, the synthetic agonist stimulated and expanded an archetypal repertoire of polyfunctional human influenza virus-specific CD8+ T cells. In vivo, specific responses were elicited in naive humanized mice by subcutaneous vaccination, conferring protection from subsequent lethal influenza challenge. Moreover, the synthetic agonist was immunogenic after oral administration. This proof-of-concept study highlights the power of synthetic biology to expand the horizons of vaccine design and therapeutic delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J. Miles
- Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics, Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mai Ping Tan
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Garry Dolton
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Emily S.J. Edwards
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah A.E. Galloway
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Bruno Laugel
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Mathew Clement
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Julia Makinde
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Kristin Ladell
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | | | - Thomas S. Watkins
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Katie Tungatt
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Yide Wong
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Han Siean Lee
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Richard J. Clark
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Johanne M. Pentier
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Meriem Attaf
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Anya Lissina
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Ann Ager
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Awen Gallimore
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Pierre J. Rizkallah
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Stephanie Gras
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, and
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jamie Rossjohn
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, and
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Scott R. Burrows
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David K. Cole
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Price
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Human Immunology Section, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew K. Sewell
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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11
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John-White M, Dumsday GJ, Johanesen P, Lyras D, Drinkwater N, McGowan S. Crystal structure of a β-aminopeptidase from an Australian Burkholderia sp. Acta Crystallogr F Struct Biol Commun 2017; 73:386-392. [PMID: 28695846 PMCID: PMC5505242 DOI: 10.1107/s2053230x17007737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
β-Aminopeptidases are a unique group of enzymes that have the unusual capability to hydrolyze N-terminal β-amino acids from synthetic β-peptides. β-Peptides can form secondary structures mimicking α-peptide-like structures that are resistant to degradation by most known proteases and peptidases. These characteristics of β-peptides give them great potential as peptidomimetics. Here, the X-ray crystal structure of BcA5-BapA, a β-aminopeptidase from a Gram-negative Burkholderia sp. that was isolated from activated sludge from a wastewater-treatment plant in Australia, is reported. The crystal structure of BcA5-BapA was determined to a resolution of 2.0 Å and showed a tetrameric assembly typical of the β-aminopeptidases. Each monomer consists of an α-subunit (residues 1-238) and a β-subunit (residues 239-367). Comparison of the structure of BcA5-BapA with those of other known β-aminopeptidases shows a highly conserved structure and suggests a similar proteolytic mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marietta John-White
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
- Manufacturing, CSIRO, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | | | - Priscilla Johanesen
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Dena Lyras
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Nyssa Drinkwater
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
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12
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Abstract
Bio-inspired synthetic backbones leading to foldamers can provide effective biopolymer mimics with new and improved properties in a physiological environment, and in turn could serve as useful tools to study biology and lead to practical applications in the areas of diagnostics or therapeutics. Remarkable progress has been accomplished over the past 20 years with the discovery of many potent bioactive foldamers originating from diverse backbones and targeting a whole spectrum of bio(macro)molecules such as membranes, protein surfaces, and nucleic acids. These current achievements, future opportunities, and key challenges that remain are discussed in this article.
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13
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Checco JW, Gellman SH. Targeting recognition surfaces on natural proteins with peptidic foldamers. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2016; 39:96-105. [PMID: 27390896 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2016.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2016] [Revised: 05/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Molecules intended to antagonize protein-protein interactions or augment polypeptide-based signaling must bind tightly to large and specific surfaces on target proteins. Some types of unnatural oligomers with discrete folding propensities ('foldamers') have recently been shown to display this capability. This review covers important recent advances among several classes of foldamers, including α-peptides with secondary structures stabilized by covalent bonds, d-α-peptides, α/β-peptides and oligo-oxopiperazines. Recent advances in this area have involved enhancing membrane permeability to provide access to intracellular protein targets, improving pharmacokinetics and duration of action in vivo, and developing strategies appropriate for targeting large and irregularly-shaped protein surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Checco
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Samuel H Gellman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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14
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Wang PSP, Schepartz A. β-Peptide bundles: Design. Build. Analyze. Biosynthesize. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:7420-32. [PMID: 27146019 DOI: 10.1039/c6cc01546h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Peptides containing β-amino acids are unique non-natural polymers known to assemble into protein-like tertiary and quaternary structures. When composed solely of β-amino acids, the structures formed, defined assemblies of 14-helices called β-peptide bundles, fold cooperatively in water solvent into unique and discrete quaternary assemblies that are highly thermostable, bind complex substrates and metal ion cofactors, and, in certain cases, catalyze chemical reactions. In this Perspective, we recount the design and elaboration of β-peptide bundles and provide an outlook on recent, unexpected discoveries that could influence research on β-peptides and β-peptide bundles (and β-amino acid-containing proteins) for decades to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pam S P Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, 225 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
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15
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Melo Czekster C, Robertson WE, Walker AS, Söll D, Schepartz A. In Vivo Biosynthesis of a β-Amino Acid-Containing Protein. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:5194-7. [PMID: 27086674 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b01023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
It has recently been reported that ribosomes from erythromycin-resistant Escherichia coli strains, when isolated in S30 extracts and incubated with chemically mis-acylated tRNA, can incorporate certain β-amino acids into full length DHFR in vitro. Here we report that wild-type E. coli EF-Tu and phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase collaborate with these mutant ribosomes and others to incorporate β(3)-Phe analogs into full length DHFR in vivo. E. coli harboring the most active mutant ribosomes are robust, with a doubling time only 14% longer than wild-type. These results reveal the unexpected tolerance of E. coli and its translation machinery to the β(3)-amino acid backbone and should embolden in vivo selections for orthogonal translational machinery components that incorporate diverse β-amino acids into proteins and peptides. E. coli harboring mutant ribosomes may possess the capacity to incorporate many non-natural, non-α-amino acids into proteins and other sequence-programmed polymeric materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa Melo Czekster
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, and §Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8107, United States
| | - Wesley E Robertson
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, and §Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8107, United States
| | - Allison S Walker
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, and §Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8107, United States
| | - Dieter Söll
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, and §Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8107, United States
| | - Alanna Schepartz
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, and §Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University , New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8107, United States
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16
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Michalik M, Djahanshiri B, Leo JC, Linke D. Reverse Vaccinology: The Pathway from Genomes and Epitope Predictions to Tailored Recombinant Vaccines. Methods Mol Biol 2016; 1403:87-106. [PMID: 27076126 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3387-7_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In this chapter, we review the computational approaches that have led to a new generation of vaccines in recent years. There are many alternative routes to develop vaccines based on the technology of reverse vaccinology. We focus here on bacterial infectious diseases, describing the general workflow from bioinformatic predictions of antigens and epitopes down to examples where such predictions have been used successfully for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Michalik
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0371, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Protein Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bardya Djahanshiri
- Department of Protein Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Department for Applied Bioinformatics, Goethe-University, 60438, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Jack C Leo
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0371, Oslo, Norway
| | - Dirk Linke
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, 0371, Oslo, Norway. .,Department of Protein Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
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17
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Gokhale AS, Satyanarayanajois S. Peptides and peptidomimetics as immunomodulators. Immunotherapy 2015; 6:755-74. [PMID: 25186605 DOI: 10.2217/imt.14.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptides and peptidomimetics can function as immunomodulating agents by either blocking the immune response or stimulating the immune response to generate tolerance. Knowledge of B- or T-cell epitopes along with conformational constraints is important in the design of peptide-based immunomodulating agents. Work on the conformational aspects of peptides, synthesis and modified amino acid side chains have contributed to the development of a new generation of therapeutic agents for autoimmune diseases and cancer. The design of peptides/peptidomimetics for immunomodulation in autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus and HIV infection is reviewed. In cancer therapy, peptide epitopes are used in such a way that the body is trained to recognize and fight the cancer cells locally as well as systemically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ameya S Gokhale
- Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Louisiana at Monroe, Monroe, LA 71201, USA
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18
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Cheloha RW, Sullivan JA, Wang T, Sand JM, Sidney J, Sette A, Cook ME, Suresh M, Gellman SH. Consequences of periodic α-to-β(3) residue replacement for immunological recognition of peptide epitopes. ACS Chem Biol 2015; 10:844-54. [PMID: 25559929 PMCID: PMC4372116 DOI: 10.1021/cb500888q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Oligomers that contain both α-
and β-amino acid residues,
or “α/β-peptides”, have emerged as promising
mimics of signal-bearing polypeptides that can inhibit or augment
natural protein–protein interactions. α/β-Peptides
that contain a sufficient proportion of β residues evenly distributed
along the sequence can be highly resistant to enzymatic degradation,
which is favorable with regard to in vivo applications.
Little is known, however, about recognition of α/β-peptides
by the immune system. Prior studies have focused almost entirely on
examples that contain a single β residue; such α/β-peptides
frequently retain the immunological profile of the analogous α-peptide.
We have conducted α-peptide vs α/β-peptide comparisons
involving higher β residue content, focusing on molecules with
αααβ and ααβαααβ
backbone repeat patterns. Among analogues of an 18-mer derived from
the Bim BH3 domain and an 8-mer derived from secreted phospholipase-2
(sPLA2), we find that recognition by antibodies raised against the
prototype α-peptide is suppressed by periodic α →
β replacements. Complementary studies reveal that antibodies
raised against Bim BH3- or sPLA2-derived α/β-peptides
fail to recognize prototype α-peptides displaying identical
side chain repertoires. Because polypeptides containing d-α-amino acid residues are of growing interest for biomedical
applications, we included the enantiomer of the sPLA2-derived α-peptide
in these studies; this d-peptide is fully competent as a
hapten, but the resulting antibodies do not cross react with the enantiomeric
peptide. Among analogues of the 9-mer CD8+ T-cell viral
epitope GP33, we observe that periodic α → β replacements
suppress participation in the MHC I + peptide + T-cell receptor ternary
complexes that activate cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, due in part to disruption
of MHC binding.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - John Sidney
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California United States
| | - Alessandro Sette
- La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology, La Jolla, California United States
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19
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Homo-β-amino acid containing MBP(85-99) analogs alleviate experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Sci Rep 2015; 5:8205. [PMID: 25644378 PMCID: PMC4314633 DOI: 10.1038/srep08205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
MBP(85–99), an immuno-dominant epitope of myelin basic protein which binds to the major histocompatibility complex haplotype HLA-DR2 is widely implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. J5, an antagonist of MBP(85–99), that blocks the binding of MBP(85–99) to soluble HLA-DR2b much more efficiently than glatiramer acetate (a random copolymer comprising major MHC and T-cell receptor contact residues), was transformed into analogs with superior biological half-lives and antagonistic-activities by substitution of some of its residues with homo-β-amino acids. S18, the best analog obtained ameliorated symptoms of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis at least twice more effectively than glatiramer acetate or J5. S18 displayed marked resistance to proteolysis in-vitro; biological impact of which was evident in the form of delayed clinical onset of disease and prolonged therapeutic-benefits. Besides active suppression of MBP(85–99)-reactive CD4+ T-cells in-vitro and in-vivo S18 treatment also generated IL-4 producing CD4+ T-cell clones, through which protective effect could be transferred passively.
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20
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Hardy MY, Tye-Din JA, Stewart JA, Schmitz F, Dudek NL, Hanchapola I, Purcell AW, Anderson RP. Ingestion of oats and barley in patients with celiac disease mobilizes cross-reactive T cells activated by avenin peptides and immuno-dominant hordein peptides. J Autoimmun 2014; 56:56-65. [PMID: 25457306 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2014.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Celiac disease (CD) is a common CD4(+) T cell mediated enteropathy driven by gluten in wheat, rye, and barley. Whilst clinical feeding studies generally support the safety of oats ingestion in CD, the avenin protein from oats can stimulate intestinal gluten-reactive T cells isolated from some CD patients in vitro. Our objective was to establish whether ingestion of oats or other grains toxic in CD stimulate an avenin-specific T cell response in vivo. We fed participants a meal of oats (100 g/day over 3 days) to measure the in vivo polyclonal avenin-specific T cell responses to peptides contained within comprehensive avenin peptide libraries in 73 HLA-DQ2.5(+) CD patients. Grain cross-reactivity was investigated using oral challenge with wheat, barley, and rye. Avenin-specific responses were observed in 6/73 HLA-DQ2.5(+) CD patients (8%), against four closely related peptides. Oral barley challenge efficiently induced cross-reactive avenin/hordein-specific T cells in most CD patients, whereas wheat or rye challenge did not. In vitro, immunogenic avenin peptides were susceptible to digestive endopeptidases and showed weak HLA-DQ2.5 binding stability. Our findings indicate that CD patients possess T cells capable of responding to immuno-dominant hordein epitopes and homologous avenin peptides ex vivo, but the frequency and consistency of these T cells in blood is substantially higher after oral challenge with barley compared to oats. The low rates of T cell activation after a substantial oats challenge (100 g/d) suggests that doses of oats commonly consumed are insufficient to cause clinical relapse, and supports the safety of oats demonstrated in long-term feeding studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melinda Y Hardy
- Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Jason A Tye-Din
- Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia; Department of Gastroenterology, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Grattan Street, Parkville, Victoria 3050, Australia.
| | - Jessica A Stewart
- Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
| | - Frederike Schmitz
- Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
| | - Nadine L Dudek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Iresha Hanchapola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Anthony W Purcell
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Robert P Anderson
- Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia; ImmusanT, Inc., One Kendall Square, Building 200, LL, Suite 4, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
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21
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Hoppes R, Oostvogels R, Luimstra JJ, Wals K, Toebes M, Bies L, Ekkebus R, Rijal P, Celie PHN, Huang JH, Emmelot ME, Spaapen RM, Lokhorst H, Schumacher TNM, Mutis T, Rodenko B, Ovaa H. Altered peptide ligands revisited: vaccine design through chemically modified HLA-A2-restricted T cell epitopes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 193:4803-13. [PMID: 25311806 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1400800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Virus or tumor Ag-derived peptides that are displayed by MHC class I molecules are attractive starting points for vaccine development because they induce strong protective and therapeutic cytotoxic T cell responses. In thus study, we show that the MHC binding and consequent T cell reactivity against several HLA-A*02 restricted epitopes can be further improved through the incorporation of nonproteogenic amino acids at primary and secondary anchor positions. We screened more than 90 nonproteogenic, synthetic amino acids through a range of epitopes and tested more than 3000 chemically enhanced altered peptide ligands (CPLs) for binding affinity to HLA-A*0201. With this approach, we designed CPLs of viral epitopes, of melanoma-associated Ags, and of the minor histocompatibility Ag UTA2-1, which is currently being evaluated for its antileukemic activity in clinical dendritic cell vaccination trials. The crystal structure of one of the CPLs in complex with HLA-A*0201 revealed the molecular interactions likely responsible for improved binding. The best CPLs displayed enhanced affinity for MHC, increasing MHC stability and prolonging recognition by Ag-specific T cells and, most importantly, they induced accelerated expansion of antitumor T cell frequencies in vitro and in vivo as compared with the native epitope. Eventually, we were able to construct a toolbox of preferred nonproteogenic residues with which practically any given HLA-A*02 restricted epitope can be readily optimized. These CPLs could improve the therapeutic outcome of vaccination strategies or can be used for ex vivo enrichment and faster expansion of Ag-specific T cells for transfer into patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rieuwert Hoppes
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Rimke Oostvogels
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands Department of Haematology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Jolien J Luimstra
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Kim Wals
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Mireille Toebes
- Division of Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Laura Bies
- Division of Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Reggy Ekkebus
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Pramila Rijal
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Patrick H N Celie
- Division of Biochemistry, The Netherlands Cancer Institute Protein Facility, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; and
| | - Julie H Huang
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Maarten E Emmelot
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Robbert M Spaapen
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Henk Lokhorst
- Department of Haematology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ton N M Schumacher
- Division of Immunology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Tuna Mutis
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Haematology, University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584 CX Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Boris Rodenko
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Huib Ovaa
- Division of Cell Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066 CX Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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22
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Single β³-amino acid substitutions to MOG peptides suppress the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 2014; 277:67-76. [PMID: 25454728 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2014.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Revised: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 09/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
CD4(+) T-cells play a key role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). Altered peptide ligands capable of modulating T-cell autoreactivity are considered a promising strategy for development of antigen-specific therapies for MS. Since peptides are inherently unstable, the current study explored single β-amino acid substitution as a means of stabilizing an epitope of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. β-Amino acid substitution at position 44, the major T-cell receptor contact residue, increased the half-life of active metabolites. Vaccination with one altered peptide, MOG44βF, conferred protection from EAE, decreased T-cell autoreactivity and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Additional studies using MOG44βF in an oral treatment regimen, administered after EAE induction, also attenuated disease severity. Thus, altered peptides such as those reported here may lead to the development of novel and more specific treatments for MS.
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Trujillo JA, Croft NP, Dudek NL, Channappanavar R, Theodossis A, Webb AI, Dunstone MA, Illing PT, Butler NS, Fett C, Tscharke DC, Rossjohn J, Perlman S, Purcell AW. The cellular redox environment alters antigen presentation. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:27979-91. [PMID: 25135637 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.573402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cysteine-containing peptides represent an important class of T cell epitopes, yet their prevalence remains underestimated. We have established and interrogated a database of around 70,000 naturally processed MHC-bound peptides and demonstrate that cysteine-containing peptides are presented on the surface of cells in an MHC allomorph-dependent manner and comprise on average 5-10% of the immunopeptidome. A significant proportion of these peptides are oxidatively modified, most commonly through covalent linkage with the antioxidant glutathione. Unlike some of the previously reported cysteine-based modifications, this represents a true physiological alteration of cysteine residues. Furthermore, our results suggest that alterations in the cellular redox state induced by viral infection are communicated to the immune system through the presentation of S-glutathionylated viral peptides, resulting in altered T cell recognition. Our data provide a structural basis for how the glutathione modification alters recognition by virus-specific T cells. Collectively, these results suggest that oxidative stress represents a mechanism for modulating the virus-specific T cell response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan A Trujillo
- From the Department of Microbiology and the Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242
| | - Nathan P Croft
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia, the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and
| | - Nadine L Dudek
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia, the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and
| | | | | | - Andrew I Webb
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | | | - Patricia T Illing
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Noah S Butler
- From the Department of Microbiology and the Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 0200, Australia, and
| | | | - David C Tscharke
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Jamie Rossjohn
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia, the Institute of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University, School of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Stanley Perlman
- From the Department of Microbiology and the Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242,
| | - Anthony W Purcell
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia, the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and
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24
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Croft NP, Purcell AW. Peptidomimetics: modifying peptides in the pursuit of better vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 10:211-26. [DOI: 10.1586/erv.10.161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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25
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Pentier JM, Sewell AK, Miles JJ. Advances in T-cell epitope engineering. Front Immunol 2013; 4:133. [PMID: 23761792 PMCID: PMC3672776 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 05/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Johanne M Pentier
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine Heath Park, Cardiff, Wales, UK
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26
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Heck T, Geueke B, Kohler HPE. Bacterialβ-Aminopeptidases: Structural Insights and Applications for Biocatalysis. Chem Biodivers 2012; 9:2388-409. [DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.201200305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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27
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Shi S, Liu J, Joshi SB, Krasnoperov V, Gill P, Middaugh CR, Volkin DB. Biophysical characterization and stabilization of the recombinant albumin fusion protein sEphB4-HSA. J Pharm Sci 2012; 101:1969-84. [PMID: 22411527 DOI: 10.1002/jps.23096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2011] [Revised: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The use of albumin fusion proteins as therapeutic drug candidates is an attractive approach to design novel biopharmaceuticals with increased circulation time in vivo. The purpose of this work was to characterize and stabilize the fusion protein sEphB4-human serum albumin (HSA), a 120 kDa protein containing the extracellular domain of EphB4 and HSA, and to identify stabilizing excipients for storage. Comparative biophysical studies combined with empirical phase diagram analysis show that both structural integrity and conformational stability of sEphB4 and sEphB4-HSA are best maintained above pH 5 and below 50 °C, with different structural phases observed outside this range. A major physical degradation pathway for sEphB4-HSA is formation of soluble aggregates. Excipient studies using size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and fluorescence spectroscopy identified disaccharide sugars (e.g., sucrose and trehalose) as effective stabilizers against protein aggregation, and NaCl as an effective stabilizer for protecting overall conformational stability. A combination of biophysical studies with sEphB4-HSA and its individual component proteins (sEphB4 and HSA), along with correlation analysis of SEC and DSC stability data in the presence of different excipients suggest that the aggregation pathway of the albumin fusion protein is primarily mediated by the sEphB4 rather than the HSA component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Shi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Macromolecule and Vaccine Stabilization Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, USA
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28
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Lico C, Santi L, Twyman RM, Pezzotti M, Avesani L. The use of plants for the production of therapeutic human peptides. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2012; 31:439-51. [PMID: 22218674 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-011-1215-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Revised: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Peptides have unique properties that make them useful drug candidates for diverse indications, including allergy, infectious disease and cancer. Some peptides are intrinsically bioactive, while others can be used to induce precise immune responses by defining a minimal immunogenic region. The limitations of peptides, such as metabolic instability, short half-life and low immunogenicity, can be addressed by strategies such as multimerization or fusion to carriers, to improve their pharmacological properties. The remaining major drawback is the cost of production using conventional chemical synthesis, which is also difficult to scale-up. Over the last 15 years, plants have been shown to produce bioactive and immunogenic peptides economically and with the potential for large-scale synthesis. The production of peptides in plants is usually achieved by the genetic fusion of the corresponding nucleotide sequence to that of a carrier protein, followed by stable nuclear or plastid transformation or transient expression using bacterial or viral vectors. Chimeric plant viruses or virus-like particles can also be used to display peptide antigens, allowing the production of polyvalent vaccine candidates. Here we review progress in the field of plant-derived peptides over the last 5 years, addressing new challenges for diverse pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Lico
- Laboratorio di Biotecnologie, Unità Tecnica BIORAD, ENEA CR Casaccia, 00123 Rome, Italy
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29
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Clayton D, Hanchapola I, Hausler N, Unabia S, Lew RA, Widdop RE, Smith AI, Perlmutter P, Aguilar MI. β-Amino acid substitution to investigate the recognition of angiotensin II (AngII) by angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). J Mol Recognit 2011; 24:235-44. [PMID: 20549604 DOI: 10.1002/jmr.1041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In spite of the important role of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in the cardiovascular system, little is known about the substrate structural requirements of the AngII-ACE2 interaction. Here we investigate how changes in angiotensin II (AngII) structure affect binding and cleavage by ACE2. A series of C3 β-amino acid AngII analogs were generated and their secondary structure, ACE2 inhibition, and proteolytic stability assessed by circular dichroism (CD), quenched fluorescence substrate (QFS) assay, and LC-MS analysis, respectively. The β-amino acid-substituted AngII analogs showed differences in secondary structure, ACE2 binding and proteolytic stability. In particular, three different subsets of structure-activity profiles were observed corresponding to substitutions in the N-terminus, the central region and the C-terminal region of AngII. The results show that β-substitution can dramatically alter the structure of AngII and changes in structure correlated with ACE2 inhibition and/or substrate cleavage. β-amino acid substitution in the N-terminal region of AngII caused little change in structure or substrate cleavage, while substitution in the central region of AngII lead to increased β-turn structure and enhanced substrate cleavage. β-amino acid substitution in the C-terminal region significantly diminished both secondary structure and proteolytic processing by ACE2. The β-AngII analogs with enhanced or decreased proteolytic stability have potential application for therapeutic intervention in cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Clayton
- Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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30
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Seebach D, Lukaszuk A, Patora-Komisarska K, Podwysocka D, Gardiner J, Ebert MO, Reubi JC, Cescato R, Waser B, Gmeiner P, Hübner H, Rougeot C. On the Terminal Homologation of Physiologically Active Peptides as a Means of Increasing Stability in Human Serum - Neurotensin, Opiorphin, B27-KK10 Epitope, NPY. Chem Biodivers 2011; 8:711-39. [DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.201100093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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31
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Jones ES, Del Borgo MP, Kirsch JF, Clayton D, Bosnyak S, Welungoda I, Hausler N, Unabia S, Perlmutter P, Thomas WG, Aguilar MI, Widdop RE. A Single β-Amino Acid Substitution to Angiotensin II Confers AT
2
Receptor Selectivity and Vascular Function. Hypertension 2011; 57:570-6. [DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.110.164301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emma S. Jones
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mark P. Del Borgo
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Julian F. Kirsch
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Daniel Clayton
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Sanja Bosnyak
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Iresha Welungoda
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicholas Hausler
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Sharon Unabia
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Patrick Perlmutter
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Walter G. Thomas
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Marie-Isabel Aguilar
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Robert E. Widdop
- From the Department of Pharmacology (E.S.J., J.F.K., S.B., I.W., R.E.W.), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (M.P.D.B., D.C., S.U., M.-I.A.), and School of Chemistry (N.H., P.P.), Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Biomedical Sciences (W.G.T.), University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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32
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Vasudev PG, Chatterjee S, Shamala N, Balaram P. Structural Chemistry of Peptides Containing Backbone Expanded Amino Acid Residues: Conformational Features of β, γ, and Hybrid Peptides. Chem Rev 2010; 111:657-87. [DOI: 10.1021/cr100100x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 273] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Prema. G. Vasudev
- Department of Physics and Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Sunanda Chatterjee
- Department of Physics and Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Narayanaswamy Shamala
- Department of Physics and Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Padmanabhan Balaram
- Department of Physics and Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
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33
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Heck T, Reimer A, Seebach D, Gardiner J, Deniau G, Lukaszuk A, Kohler HPE, Geueke B. β-Aminopeptidase-Catalyzed Biotransformations of β2-Dipeptides: Kinetic Resolution and Enzymatic Coupling. Chembiochem 2010; 11:1129-36. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200900757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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34
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Heck T, Makam V, Lutz J, Blank L, Schmid A, Seebach D, Kohler HP, Geueke B. Kinetic Analysis of L-Carnosine Formation by β-Aminopeptidases. Adv Synth Catal 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.200900697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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35
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Zanuy D, Flores-Ortega A, Jiménez AI, Calaza MI, Cativiela C, Nussinov R, Ruoslahti E, Alemán C. In silico molecular engineering for a targeted replacement in a tumor-homing peptide. J Phys Chem B 2009; 113:7879-89. [PMID: 19432404 PMCID: PMC2734192 DOI: 10.1021/jp9006119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
A new amino acid has been designed as a replacement for arginine (Arg, R) to protect the tumor-homing pentapeptide CREKA (Cys-Arg-Glu-Lys-Ala) from proteases. This amino acid, denoted (Pro)hArg, is characterized by a proline skeleton bearing a specifically oriented guanidinium side chain. This residue combines the ability of Pro to induce turn-like conformations with the Arg side-chain functionality. The conformational profile of the CREKA analogue incorporating this Arg substitute has been investigated by a combination of simulated annealing and molecular dynamics. Comparison of the results with those previously obtained for the natural CREKA shows that (Pro)hArg significantly reduces the conformational flexibility of the peptide. Although some changes are observed in the backbone...backbone and side-chain...side-chain interactions, the modified peptide exhibits a strong tendency to accommodate turn conformations centered at the (Pro)hArg residue and the overall shape of the molecule in the lowest energy conformations characterized for the natural and the modified peptides exhibit a high degree of similarity. In particular, the turn orients the backbone such that the Arg, Glu, and Lys side chains face the same side of the molecule, which is considered important for bioactivity. These results suggest that replacement of Arg by (Pro)hArg in CREKA may be useful in providing resistance against proteolytic enzymes while retaining conformational features which are essential for tumor-homing activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Zanuy
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, E. T. S. d'Enginyeria Industrial de Barcelona, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Diagonal 647, Barcelona E-08028, Spain
| | - Alejandra Flores-Ortega
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, E. T. S. d'Enginyeria Industrial de Barcelona, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Diagonal 647, Barcelona E-08028, Spain
| | - Ana I. Jiménez
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Aragón, Universidad de Zaragoza - CSIC, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - M. Isabel Calaza
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Aragón, Universidad de Zaragoza - CSIC, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Carlos Cativiela
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Aragón, Universidad de Zaragoza - CSIC, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Ruth Nussinov
- Basic Research Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc. Center for Cancer Research Nanobiology Program, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
- Department of Human Genetics Sackler, Medical School, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Erkki Ruoslahti
- Vascular Mapping Center, The Burnham Institute for Medical Research at UCSB, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA
- Cancer Research Center, The Burnham Institute for Medical Research, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Carlos Alemán
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, E. T. S. d'Enginyeria Industrial de Barcelona, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Diagonal 647, Barcelona E-08028, Spain
- Center for Research in Nano-Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Campus Sud, Edifici C', C/Pasqual i Vila s/n, Barcelona E-08028, Spain
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36
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Stufano A, Kanduc D. Proteome-based epitopic peptide scanning along PSA. Exp Mol Pathol 2009; 86:36-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yexmp.2008.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2008] [Accepted: 11/26/2008] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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37
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Non-natural and photo-reactive amino acids as biochemical probes of immune function. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3938. [PMID: 19079589 PMCID: PMC2592539 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2008] [Accepted: 11/16/2008] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Wilms tumor protein (WT1) is a transcription factor selectively overexpressed in leukemias and cancers; clinical trials are underway that use altered WT1 peptide sequences as vaccines. Here we report a strategy to study peptide-MHC interactions by incorporating non-natural and photo-reactive amino acids into the sequence of WT1 peptides. Thirteen WT1 peptides sequences were synthesized with chemically modified amino acids (via fluorination and photo-reactive group additions) at MHC and T cell receptor binding positions. Certain new non-natural peptide analogs could stabilize MHC class I molecules better than the native sequences and were also able to elicit specific T-cell responses and sometimes cytotoxicity to leukemia cells. Two photo-reactive peptides, also modified with a biotin handle for pull-down studies, formed covalent interactions with MHC molecules on live cells and provided kinetic data showing the rapid clearance of the peptide-MHC complex. Despite “infinite affinity” provided by the covalent peptide bonding to the MHC, immunogenicity was not enhanced by these peptides because the peptide presentation on the surface was dominated by catabolism of the complex and only a small percentage of peptide molecules covalently bound to the MHC molecules. This study shows that non-natural amino acids can be successfully incorporated into T cell epitopes to provide novel immunological, biochemical and kinetic information.
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Abstract
Advances in the engineering of peptides, adjuvants and delivery systems have renewed the enthusiasm for peptide-based vaccination regimens in the setting of cancer, and there are a variety of clinical trials being conducted by pharmaceutical companies based on the use of peptides. The challenges to successful cancer immunotherapy are common to all immunotherapeutic strategies and not unique to peptide-based vaccination regimens. This review will describe the advances in the identification, design and delivery of peptides, the challenges to successful immunotherapy and will discuss potential options for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shreya Kanodia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, NRT 7517, University of Southern California, 1450 Biggy Street, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Zanuy D, Flores-Ortega A, Casanovas J, Curcó D, Nussinov R, Alemán C. The energy landscape of a selective tumor-homing pentapeptide. J Phys Chem B 2008; 112:8692-700. [PMID: 18588341 DOI: 10.1021/jp711477k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recently, a potentially powerful strategy based on phage-display libraries has been presented to target tumors via homing peptides attached to nanoparticles. The Cys-Arg-Glu-Lys-Ala (CREKA) peptide sequence has been identified as a tumor-homing peptide that binds to clotted plasmas proteins present in tumor vessels and interstitium. The aim of this work consists of mapping the conformational profile of CREKA to identify the bioactive conformation. For this purpose, a conformational search procedure based on modified simulated annealing combined with molecular dynamics was applied to three systems that mimic the experimentally used conditions: (i) the free peptide; (ii) the peptide attached to a nanoparticle; and (iii) the peptide inserted in a phage display protein. In addition, the free peptide was simulated in an ionized aqueous solution environment, which mimics the ionic strength of the physiological medium. Accessible minima of all simulated systems reveal a multiple interaction pattern involving the ionized side chains of Arg, Glu, and Lys, which induces a beta-turn motif in the backbone observed in all simulated CREKA systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Zanuy
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, E. T. S. d'Enginyeria Industrial de Barcelona, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Diagonal 647, Barcelona E-08028, Spain.
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40
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Butler NS, Theodossis A, Webb AI, Dunstone MA, Nastovska R, Ramarathinam SH, Rossjohn J, Purcell AW, Perlman S. Structural and biological basis of CTL escape in coronavirus-infected mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:3926-37. [PMID: 18322201 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.6.3926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocyte escape occurs in many human infections, as well as mice infected with the JHM strain of mouse hepatitis virus, which exhibit CTL escape variants with mutations in a single epitope from the spike glycoprotein (S510). In all CTL epitopes prone to escape, only a subset of all potential variants is generally detected, even though many of the changes that are not selected would result in evasion of the T cell response. It is postulated that these unselected mutations significantly impair virus fitness. To define more precisely the basis for this preferential selection, we combine x-ray crystallographic studies of the MHC class I (D(b))/S510 complexes with viral reverse genetics to identify a prominent TCR contact residue (tryptophan at position 4) prone to escape mutations. The data show that a mutation that is commonly detected in chronically infected mice (tryptophan to arginine) potently disrupts the topology of the complex, explaining its selection. However, other mutations at this residue, which also abrogate the CTL response, are never selected in vivo even though they do not compromise virus fitness in acutely infected animals or induce a significant de novo CTL response. Thus, while structural analyses of the S510/D(b) complex provide a strong basis for why some CTL escape variants are selected, our results also show that factors other than effects on virus fitness limit the diversification of CD8 T cell epitopes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah S Butler
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
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Horne WS, Boersma MD, Windsor MA, Gellman SH. Sequence-based design of alpha/beta-peptide foldamers that mimic BH3 domains. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008; 47:2853-6. [PMID: 18330876 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200705315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- W Seth Horne
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, 1101 University Ave., Madison, WI 53706, USA
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Horne W, Boersma M, Windsor M, Gellman S. Sequence-Based Design of α/β-Peptide Foldamers That Mimic BH3 Domains. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200705315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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43
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Subramanian GM, Fiscella M, Lamousé-Smith A, Zeuzem S, McHutchison JG. Albinterferon alpha-2b: a genetic fusion protein for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C. Nat Biotechnol 2008; 25:1411-9. [PMID: 18066038 DOI: 10.1038/nbt1364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Treatment regimens based on the use of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) remain the cornerstone of therapy for chronic hepatitis C virus infection, which affects nearly 170 million people worldwide. Treatment options include unmodified IFN-alpha given three times weekly or pegylated IFNs given once weekly. The albumin-fusion platform takes advantage of the long half-life of human albumin to provide a new treatment approach that allows the dosing frequency of IFN-alpha to be reduced in individuals with chronic hepatitis C. Albinterferon alpha-2b (alb-IFN), a recombinant polypeptide composed of IFN-alpha2b genetically fused to human albumin, has an extended half-life and early evidence indicates that it is efficacious and well tolerated. Pharmacodynamic modeling supports treatment with alb-IFN at 2- or 4-week intervals. Phase 3 registration trials are in progress. The albumin-fusion platform is currently being applied to other important bioactive peptides with short half-lives. These fusion proteins, which are at present in different phases of clinical development, might lead to improved therapies across a broad range of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Mani Subramanian
- Human Genome Sciences, Inc., 14200 Shady Grove Road, Rockville, Maryland 21042, USA.
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Purcell AW, McCluskey J, Rossjohn J. More than one reason to rethink the use of peptides in vaccine design. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2007; 6:404-14. [PMID: 17473845 DOI: 10.1038/nrd2224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 576] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The use of peptides as therapeutics is experiencing renewed enthusiasm owing to advances in delivery, stability and design. Moreover, there is a growing emphasis on the use of peptides in vaccine design as insights into tissue-specific processing of the immunogenic epitopes of proteins and the discovery of unusually long cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitopes broaden the range of targets and give clues to enhancing peptide immunogenicity. Peptides can also be synthesized with known post-translational modifications and/or deliberately introduced protease-resistant peptide bonds to regulate their processing independent of tissue-specific proteolysis and to stabilize these compounds in vivo. We discuss the potential of peptide-based vaccines for the treatment of chronic viral diseases and cancer, and review recent developments in the field of peptide-based vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony W Purcell
- The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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45
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Sadowsky JD, Murray JK, Tomita Y, Gellman SH. Exploration of Backbone Space in Foldamers Containing α- and β-Amino Acid Residues: Developing Protease-Resistant Oligomers that Bind Tightly to the BH3-Recognition Cleft of Bcl-xL. Chembiochem 2007; 8:903-16. [PMID: 17503422 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200600546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions play crucial roles in cell-signaling events and are often implicated in human disease. Molecules that bind tightly to functional protein-surface sites and show high stability to degradative enzymes could be valuable pharmacological tools for dissection of cell-signaling networks and might ultimately lead to therapeutic agents. We recently described oligomers containing both alpha- and beta-amino acid residues that bind tightly to the BH3 recognition site of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-x(L). The oligomers with highest affinity had a nine-residue N-terminal segment with a 1:1 alpha:beta residue repeat and a six-residue C-terminal segment containing exclusively proteinogenic alpha-residues. The N-terminal portions of such (alpha/beta+alpha)-peptides are highly resistant to proteolysis, but the C-terminal alpha-segments are susceptible. This study emerged from efforts to modify the alpha-segment in an (alpha/beta+alpha)-peptide in a way that would diminish proteolytic degradation but retain high affinity for Bcl-x(L). Some of the oligomers reported here could prove useful in certain biological applications, particularly those for which extended incubation in a biological milieu is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack D Sadowsky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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46
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Goodman CM, Choi S, Shandler S, DeGrado WF. Foldamers as versatile frameworks for the design and evolution of function. Nat Chem Biol 2007; 3:252-62. [PMID: 17438550 PMCID: PMC3810020 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 759] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Foldamers are sequence-specific oligomers akin to peptides, proteins and oligonucleotides that fold into well-defined three-dimensional structures. They offer the chemical biologist a broad pallet of building blocks for the construction of molecules that test and extend our understanding of protein folding and function. Foldamers also provide templates for presenting complex arrays of functional groups in virtually unlimited geometrical patterns, thereby presenting attractive opportunities for the design of molecules that bind in a sequence- and structure-specific manner to oligosaccharides, nucleic acids, membranes and proteins. We summarize recent advances and highlight the future applications and challenges of this rapidly expanding field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine M Goodman
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Pennsylvania, School of Medicine, 422 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6059, USA
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47
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Aguilar MI, Purcell AW, Devi R, Lew R, Rossjohn J, Smith AI, Perlmutter P. β-Amino acid-containing hybrid peptides—new opportunities in peptidomimetics. Org Biomol Chem 2007; 5:2884-90. [PMID: 17728852 DOI: 10.1039/b708507a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hybrid peptides consisting of alpha-amino acids with judiciously placed beta-amino acids show great promise as peptidomimetics in an increasing range of therapeutic applications. This reflects a combination of increased stability, high specificity and relative ease of synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Isabel Aguilar
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Monash University, PO Box 13d, Victoria, 3800, Australia
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