1
|
Chen Y, Chen H, Zheng Q. Siglecs family used by pathogens for immune escape may engaged in immune tolerance in pregnancy. J Reprod Immunol 2023; 159:104127. [PMID: 37572430 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2023.104127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
The Siglecs family is a group of type I sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like receptors that regulate cellular signaling by recognizing sialic acid epitopes. Siglecs are predominantly expressed on the surface of leukocytes, where they play a crucial role in regulating immune activity. Pathogens can exploit inhibitory Siglecs by utilizing their sialic acid components to promote invasion or suppress immune functions, facilitating immune evasion. The establishing of an immune-balanced maternal-fetal interface microenvironment is essential for a successful pregnancy. Dysfunctional immune cells may lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes. Siglecs are important for inducing a phenotypic switch in leukocytes at the maternal-fetal interface toward a less toxic and more tolerant phenotype. Recent discoveries regarding Siglecs in the reproductive system have drawn further attention to their potential roles in reproduction. In this review, we primarily discuss the latest advances in understanding the impact of Siglecs as immune regulators on infections and pregnancy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Chen
- Prenatal Diagnosis Center, The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 3025# Shennan Road, Shenzhen 518033, PR China
| | - Huan Chen
- Prenatal Diagnosis Center, The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 3025# Shennan Road, Shenzhen 518033, PR China
| | - Qingliang Zheng
- Prenatal Diagnosis Center, The Eighth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 3025# Shennan Road, Shenzhen 518033, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Cryptosporidium infection induced the dropping of SCFAS and dysbiosis in intestinal microbiome of Tibetan pigs. Microb Pathog 2023; 174:105922. [PMID: 36462579 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
The infection of Cryptosporidium in pigs causes digestive system ailments, diarrhea and weight loss serving as an economic burden, especially in newborn animals. The bacterial fermentation products of short-chain fatty acids have important roles in immune function, microbiota regulation, osmotic balance and metabolism. However, till now little knowledge is available about the effect of Cryptosporidium infection on microbiota and SCFAs in plateau pigs. Hence, we performed this study to explore the response of microbiota and SCFAs in the natural infection of Cryptosporidium in Tibetan pigs. Cryptosporidium positive (infected, G) and negative samples (healthy, J) in our previous study were used for high throughputsequencing and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometer analysis. Over 81 000 and 74 000 filtered sequences were detected in healthy and infected Tibetan pigs, respectively. Lower sample richness and evenness were observed in Cryptosporidium infection, as alpha diversity analysis found that chao1 (p < 0.05), faith_pd (p < 0.05), and observed_features in group G were significantly lower than pigs in group J. A total of 4 and 27 significant different phyla and genera were found between group G and J. The changed genera were Psychrobacter, Desemzia, Succiniclasticum, Treponema, Campylobacter, Atopobium, Olsenella, Pediococcus, Peptococcus, Sharpea, Desulfovibrio, Acinetobacter, Rhodococcus, Anaerostipes, Turicibacter, Lactobacillus, RFN20, Phascolarctobacterium, Roseburia, Megasphaera, Streptococcus, Blautia, Lachnospira, rc4_4, Gemmiger, Dorea, Oribacterium and Prevotella, which affected the microbiota functions with 360 abundance changed enzymes, and pathways in L1, L2 and L3 levels of KEGG. The concentration of acetic acid (p < 0.01), butyric acid (p < 0.05) and caproic acid (p < 0.01) were lower in group G. In conclusion, the present study herein uncovered that the host responses to Cryptosporidium infection in Tibetan pigs with 27 of significantly changed genera decreased SCFAs in pigs, which may provide insights in further developing novel therapy against this protozoan.
Collapse
|
3
|
Manohar MM, Campbell BE, Walduck AK, Moore RJ. Enhancement of live vaccines by co-delivery of immune modulating proteins. Vaccine 2022; 40:5769-5780. [PMID: 36064671 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.08.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines are very effective in providing protection against many infectious diseases. However, it has proven difficult to develop highly efficacious vaccines against some pathogens and so there is a continuing need to improve vaccine technologies. The first successful and widely used vaccines were based on attenuated pathogens (e.g., laboratory passaged Pasteurella multocida to vaccinate against fowl cholera) or closely related non-pathogenic organisms (e.g., cowpox to vaccinate against smallpox). Subsequently, live vaccines, either attenuated pathogens or non-pathogenic microorganisms modified to deliver heterologous antigens, have been successfully used to induce protective immune responses against many pathogens. Unlike conventional killed and subunit vaccines, live vaccines can deliver antigens to mucosal surfaces in a similar manner and context as the natural infection and hence can often produce a more appropriate and protective immune response. Despite these advantages, there is still a need to improve the immunogenicity of some live vaccines. The efficacy of injectable killed and subunit vaccines is usually enhanced using adjuvants such mineral salts, oils, and saponin, but such adjuvants cannot be used with live vaccines. Instead, live vaccines can be engineered to produce immunomodulatory molecules that can stimulate the immune system to induce more robust and long-lasting adaptive immune responses. This review focuses on research that has been undertaken to engineer live vaccines to produce immunomodulatory molecules that act as adjuvants to increase immunogenicity. Adjuvant strategies with varying mechanisms of action (inflammatory, antibody-mediated, cell-mediated) and delivery modes (oral, intramuscular, intranasal) have been investigated, with varying degrees of success. The goal of such research is to define adjuvant strategies that can be adapted to enhance live vaccine efficacy by triggering strong innate and adaptive immune responses and produce vaccines against a wider range of pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megha M Manohar
- School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia.
| | | | - Anna K Walduck
- School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia.
| | - Robert J Moore
- School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Korchagina AA, Koroleva E, Tumanov AV. Innate Lymphoid Cells in Response to Intracellular Pathogens: Protection Versus Immunopathology. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:775554. [PMID: 34938670 PMCID: PMC8685334 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.775554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a heterogeneous group of cytokine-producing lymphocytes which are predominantly located at mucosal barrier surfaces, such as skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. ILCs contribute to tissue homeostasis, regulate microbiota-derived signals, and protect against mucosal pathogens. ILCs are classified into five major groups by their developmental origin and distinct cytokine production. A recently emerged intriguing feature of ILCs is their ability to alter their phenotype and function in response to changing local environmental cues such as pathogen invasion. Once the pathogen crosses host barriers, ILCs quickly activate cytokine production to limit the spread of the pathogen. However, the dysregulated ILC responses can lead to tissue inflammation and damage. Furthermore, the interplay between ILCs and other immune cell types shapes the outcome of the immune response. Recent studies highlighted the important role of ILCs for host defense against intracellular pathogens. Here, we review recent advances in understanding the mechanisms controlling protective and pathogenic ILC responses to intracellular pathogens. This knowledge can help develop new ILC-targeted strategies to control infectious diseases and immunopathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna A Korchagina
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Ekaterina Koroleva
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Alexei V Tumanov
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Tangkonda E, Kubo M, Sekiguchi S, Shinki T, Sasaki S, Yamada K, Taniguchi T, Vetchapitak T, Misawa N. Work-related increases in titer of Campylobacter jejuni antibody among workers at a chicken processing plant in Miyazaki prefecture, Japan, independent of individual ingestion of edible raw chicken meat. J Vet Med Sci 2021; 83:1306-1314. [PMID: 34219072 PMCID: PMC8437720 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.21-0244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Workers in poultry abattoirs may be frequently exposed to Campylobacter jejuni, which is a leading cause of bacterial food poisoning in Japan. The present study was conducted to measure the titers of IgG and IgA antibodies against C. jejuni among 104 female workers in a chicken processing plant in Miyazaki prefecture, Japan. Information regarding habitual ingestion of raw chicken meat and potential occupational risk factors was collected using a questionnaire. Acid extracts of four C. jejuni strains representing the genotypes most dominant in Miyazaki were used as antigens. The levels of both immunoglobulins measured by ELISA were not correlated with ingestion of edible raw chicken meat, the amount consumed in one sitting, or its frequency. Although age was correlated with antibody levels, the length of employment was not. Furthermore, the IgG and IgA levels in workers at the evisceration step were significantly higher than those at other locations in the plant. To identify the bacterial proteins recognized by the workers' IgG and IgA antibodies, Western blotting followed by LC/MS was conducted. Flagellin was identified as the common protein recognized in the sera of workers for whom ELISA demonstrated both the highest and lowest antibody levels. We concluded that the titers of IgG and IgA against C. jejuni in workers at the processing plant had been increased by occupational exposure to Campylobacter, regardless of raw chicken meat ingestion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabet Tangkonda
- Graduate School of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Miyazaki, 5200 Kihara-Kiyotake-cho, Miyazaki 889-1692, Japan.,Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health, Department of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
| | - Meiko Kubo
- Miyakonojo Meat Inspection Center, 38-1 Hirae-cho, Miyakonojo-shi, Miyazaki 885-0021, Japan
| | - Satoshi Sekiguchi
- Center for Animal Disease Control, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan.,Laboratory of Animal Infectious Disease and Prevention, Department of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
| | - Taisuke Shinki
- Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health, Department of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
| | - Satomi Sasaki
- Center for Animal Disease Control, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
| | - Kentaro Yamada
- Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health, Department of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan.,Center for Animal Disease Control, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
| | - Takako Taniguchi
- Center for Animal Disease Control, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
| | - Torrung Vetchapitak
- Center for Animal Disease Control, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
| | - Naoaki Misawa
- Graduate School of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Miyazaki, 5200 Kihara-Kiyotake-cho, Miyazaki 889-1692, Japan.,Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health, Department of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan.,Center for Animal Disease Control, University of Miyazaki, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ghssein G, Awada R, Salami A, Bahmad HF, Awad A, Joumaa WH, El Roz A. Prevalence, Laboratory Findings and Clinical Characteristics of Campylobacteriosis Agents among Hospitalized Children with Acute Gastroenteritis in Lebanon. Pediatr Gastroenterol Hepatol Nutr 2021; 24:346-356. [PMID: 34316469 PMCID: PMC8279822 DOI: 10.5223/pghn.2021.24.4.346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Campylobacter species are currently the most common cause of bacterial gastroenteritis. In Lebanon, Campylobacter infection occurrence is underdiagnosed owing to the lack of specific culture and rapid test kits, particularly among children. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence, laboratory findings, and clinical characteristics of Campylobacter infection in hospitalized children with acute gastroenteritis in South Lebanon. METHODS We conducted a 6-month retrospective cohort study between January and June 2018, including 291 children aged between 1 month and 12 years, who were admitted to a tertiary healthcare center in South Lebanon. The medical files of the patients were reviewed to retrieve the required clinical information, including clinical and laboratory data. RESULTS The prevalence of campylobacteriosis agents in pediatric patients with acute gastroenteritis is 12.02%. Patients infected with Campylobacter had more severe acute gastroenteritis than Campylobacter-negative patients and often presented with high-grade fever, diarrhea episodes more than six times per day, diarrhea lasting for more than five days, and dehydration. Indeed, children with high-grade fever (≥38.5°C) were five times more likely to test positive for Campylobacter than those with low-grade fever. In addition, the results showed a higher Vesikari score for the majority of Campylobacter-positive patients with severe acute gastroenteritis compared to a moderate profile for Campylobacter-negative patients. CONCLUSION The present study findings highlight that Campylobacter infection is frequent among children with acute gastroenteritis. Therefore, the detection of Campylobacter should be carried out for the diagnosis of human gastroenteritis in Lebanon, along with the detection of routine enteropathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ghassan Ghssein
- Rammal Hassan Rammal Research Laboratory, PhyToxE Research Group, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University, Nabatieh, Lebanon.,Department of Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Nursing and Health Sciences, Islamic University of Lebanon, Khalde, Lebanon
| | - Rana Awada
- Rammal Hassan Rammal Research Laboratory, PhyToxE Research Group, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University, Nabatieh, Lebanon.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University, Hadath, Lebanon
| | - Ali Salami
- Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University, Nabatieh, Lebanon
| | - Hisham F Bahmad
- Arkadi M. Rywlin M.D. Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Medical Center, Miami Beach, FL, USA
| | - Ali Awad
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University, Hadath, Lebanon
| | - Wissam H Joumaa
- Rammal Hassan Rammal Research Laboratory, PhyToxE Research Group, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University, Nabatieh, Lebanon
| | - Ali El Roz
- Rammal Hassan Rammal Research Laboratory, PhyToxE Research Group, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University, Nabatieh, Lebanon.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Lebanese University, Hadath, Lebanon
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
|
8
|
Kreling V, Falcone FH, Kehrenberg C, Hensel A. Campylobacter sp.: Pathogenicity factors and prevention methods-new molecular targets for innovative antivirulence drugs? Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:10409-10436. [PMID: 33185702 PMCID: PMC7662028 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10974-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Infections caused by bacterial species from the genus Campylobacter are one of the four main causes of strong diarrheal enteritis worldwide. Campylobacteriosis, a typical food-borne disease, can range from mild symptoms to fatal illness. About 550 million people worldwide suffer from campylobacteriosis and lethality is about 33 million p.a. This review summarizes the state of the current knowledge on Campylobacter with focus on its specific virulence factors. Using this knowledge, multifactorial prevention strategies can be implemented to reduce the prevalence of Campylobacter in the food chain. In particular, antiadhesive strategies with specific adhesion inhibitors seem to be a promising concept for reducing Campylobacter bacterial load in poultry production. Antivirulence compounds against bacterial adhesion to and/or invasion into the host cells can open new fields for innovative antibacterial agents. Influencing chemotaxis, biofilm formation, quorum sensing, secretion systems, or toxins by specific inhibitors can help to reduce virulence of the bacterium. In addition, the unusual glycosylation of the bacterium, being a prerequisite for effective phase variation and adaption to different hosts, is yet an unexplored target for combating Campylobacter sp. Plant extracts are widely used remedies in developing countries to combat infections with Campylobacter. Therefore, the present review summarizes the use of natural products against the bacterium in an attempt to stimulate innovative research concepts on the manifold still open questions behind Campylobacter towards improved treatment and sanitation of animal vectors, treatment of infected patients, and new strategies for prevention. KEY POINTS: • Campylobacter sp. is a main cause of strong enteritis worldwide. • Main virulence factors: cytolethal distending toxin, adhesion proteins, invasion machinery. • Strong need for development of antivirulence compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Kreling
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Franco H Falcone
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Gießen, Schubertstraße 81, 35392, Gießen, Germany
| | - Corinna Kehrenberg
- Institute of Veterinary Food Science, University of Gießen, Frankfurterstraße 81, 35392, Gießen, Germany
| | - Andreas Hensel
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, 48149, Münster, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Shang P, Zhu M, Wang Y, Zheng X, Wu X, Zhu J, Feng J, Zhang HL. Axonal variants of Guillain-Barré syndrome: an update. J Neurol 2020; 268:2402-2419. [PMID: 32140865 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-020-09742-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Axonal variants of Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) mainly include acute motor axonal neuropathy, acute motor and sensory axonal neuropathy, and pharyngeal-cervical-brachial weakness. Molecular mimicry of human gangliosides by a pathogen's lipooligosaccharides is a well-established mechanism for Campylobacter jejuni-associated GBS. New triggers of the axonal variants of GBS (axonal GBS), such as Zika virus, hepatitis viruses, intravenous administration of ganglioside, vaccination, and surgery, are being identified. However, the pathogenetic mechanisms of axonal GBS related to antecedent bacterial or viral infections other than Campylobacter jejuni remain unknown. Currently, autoantibody classification and serial electrophysiology are cardinal approaches to differentiate axonal GBS from the prototype of GBS, acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. Newly developed technologies, including metabolite analysis, peripheral nerve ultrasound, and feature selection via artificial intelligence are facilitating more accurate diagnosis of axonal GBS. Nevertheless, some key issues, such as genetic susceptibilities, remain unanswered and moreover, current therapies bear limitations. Although several therapies have shown considerable benefits to experimental animals, randomized controlled trials are still needed to validate their efficacy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pei Shang
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Xinmin Street 71#, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Mingqin Zhu
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Xinmin Street 71#, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Xinmin Street 71#, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Xiangyu Zheng
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Xinmin Street 71#, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Xiujuan Wu
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Xinmin Street 71#, Changchun, 130021, China
| | - Jie Zhu
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Xinmin Street 71#, Changchun, 130021, China.,Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jiachun Feng
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Xinmin Street 71#, Changchun, 130021, China.
| | - Hong-Liang Zhang
- Department of Life Sciences, National Natural Science Foundation of China, Shuangqing Road 83#, Beijing, 100085, China.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Pavlova M, Alexandrova E, Donkov G, Mitova-Mineva Y, Kantardjiev T, Velev V. Campylobacter infections among Bulgarian children: molecular characterization and antimicrobial susceptibility. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2020.1817783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pavlova
- Laboratory of Enteric Infections, Pathogenic Cocci and Diphtheria, Department of Microbiology, National Center of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases (NCIPD), Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Ekaterina Alexandrova
- Laboratory of Enteric Infections, Pathogenic Cocci and Diphtheria, Department of Microbiology, National Center of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases (NCIPD), Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - George Donkov
- Department of Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Sofia, Bulgaria
| | | | - Todor Kantardjiev
- Laboratory of Enteric Infections, Pathogenic Cocci and Diphtheria, Department of Microbiology, National Center of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases (NCIPD), Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Valeri Velev
- Clinic of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Hospital for Infectious and Parasitic Diseases ‘Prof. Iv. Kirov’, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| |
Collapse
|