Improving Access to Long-Acting Contraceptive Methods and Reducing Unplanned Pregnancy Among Women with Substance Use Disorders

Contraceptive uptake in postpartum people with and without opioid use disorder and opioid use with co-occurring substance use

Background

Using contraception to delay pregnancy allows people with opioid use disorder (OUD) to choose when they are ready to continue their families. Yet, postpartum contraceptive uptake among people with OUD has not been well characterized.

Methods

Analyses used 73,811 pregnancy episodes among 61,221 people (2016-2021) from the St. Louis University-SSM Virtual Data Warehouse. OUD was defined from the year prior and through pregnancy. Contraceptive uptake was defined within 90-days after delivery. We used Generalized Estimating Equations-type multinomial logit models to assess association of OUD +/- co-occurring substance use disorders (SUDs) with any contraception (yes/no) and type of contraception (effective - pills, patch, ring, injection; or highly effective - long-acting reversible, LARC methods [intrauterine device, implant] and sterilization).

Results

The sample was 66.0 % white and average age was 27.7 years (±5.6). 32.5 % of pregnancies were followed by contraception initiation, 2.3 % had an OUD diagnosis, and 1.3 % OUD with co-occurring SUD. There was no association between OUD and postpartum contraception receipt, but OUD was associated with decreased highly effective compared to effective method initiation (aOR=0.76; 95 % CI: [0.64-0.91]). OUD plus co-occurring SUD was associated with decreased uptake across all contraception types (aOR=0.81[0.70-0.93]), specifically, highly-effective methods (aOR=0.48[0.38-0.61]).

Conclusions

Overall postpartum contraception uptake among people with OUD is comparable to uptake in the non-OUD population. People with OUD plus co-occurring SUDs are particularly unlikely to receive contraception. The reasons people choose contraceptive methods are complex and may differ by SUD severity. More information is needed to understand factors that impact postpartum contraception initiation.

The co-creation and evaluation of a recovery community center bundled model to build recovery capital through the promotion of reproductive health and justice

People who can get pregnant who use drugs face disproportionate harms such as violence, exploitation and trauma and have unmet reproductive health needs as they have the greatest burden of unintended pregnancy (>75%). Recovery community centers (RCCs) provide recovery support services and are primarily staffed with people with lived experience using drugs. RCCs employ recovery coaches who are entrusted with helping participants improve their recovery capital, health, and wellbeing through person-centered strengths-based approaches. Although reproductive health and the prevention of unintended pregnancy can greatly impact all domains of recovery capital, recovery coaches generally do not have training to address this complex issue. We aimed to fill this gap by co-creating and evaluating a bundled model as an intervention tailored for RCCs (training & low-barrier resources including pregnancy tests, prenatal vitamins, and emergency contraception) to promote more equitable outcomes in reproductive health. We described the training and used mixed methods to assess pre-post knowledge, belief, and comfort with the bundled model (n = 20) and further explored perceptions of the model qualitatively to inform future iterations (n = 58). Results included significant gains in all three domains following the training, as well as favorable perceptions that the model will enhance recovery capital. Most were empowered to champion the model, asking for more information about the three resources, perinatal health, and referral information. We seek to begin to expand the theoretical construct of recovery capital by pilot testing an intervention to promote recovery through enhancing reproductive health and justice for people who use drugs (PWUD) who can get pregnant.

Barriers to and facilitators of hormonal and long-acting reversible contraception access and use in the US among reproductive-aged women who use opioids: A scoping review

Existing research has found that women who use opioids (WWUO) experience challenges to hormonal and long-acting reversible contraception (HC-LARC) access and use. Facilitators of such use are unclear. We conducted a scoping review to comprehensively map the literature on barriers to and facilitators of HC-LARC access and use in the United States among reproductive-aged WWUO. In accordance with the JBI Manual of Evidence Synthesis, we conducted literature searches for empirical articles published from 1990 to 2021. Independent reviewers screened references, first by titles and abstracts, then by full-text, and charted data of eligible articles. We coded and organized HC-LARC barriers and facilitators according to a four-level social-ecological model (SEM) and categorized findings within each SEM level into domains. We screened 4,617 records, of which 28 articles focusing on HC-LARC (n = 18), LARC only (n = 6), or testing an intervention to increase HC-LARC uptake (n = 4) met inclusion criteria. We identified 13 domains of barriers and 11 domains of facilitators across four SEM levels (individual, relationship, community, societal). The most frequently cited barriers and facilitators were methods characteristics, partner and provider relations, transportation, healthcare availability and accessibility, cost, insurance, and stigma. Future studies would benefit from recruiting participants and collecting data in community settings, targeting more diverse populations, and identifying neighborhood, social, and policy barriers and facilitators. Reducing barriers and improving equity in HC-LARC access and use among WWUO is a complex, multifaceted issue that will require targeting factors simultaneously at multiple levels of the social-ecological hierarchy to effect change.

Ethical Issues in Providing and Promoting Contraception to Women with Opioid Use Disorder

Women with opioid use disorder (OUD) face unique challenges meeting their reproductive goals. Because the rate of unintended pregnancy in this population is almost 80 percent, there has been a push to increase the use of contraceptives among reproductive-aged women with OUD.1 The patient-level ethical issues of such initiatives, however, are often overlooked. This review discusses the ethical issues in two realms: obtaining contraception when it is desired and avoiding contraceptive coercion when contraception is not desired. It is important that access to reproductive education and care be improved to ensure autonomous decision making by women with OUD. It is also necessary to be mindful of the history of oppressive and coercive contraception and sterilization policies in the United States. These policies have left a legacy of mistrust and continue to be manifested in the form of more subtly oppressive policies in contemporary medical practice. Such policies point to the ongoing stigmatization of, and implicit biases held against, women with OUD. Based on these ethical issues, solutions are suggested at the clinical, systemic, and societal levels.

Perspectives among women receiving medications for opioid use disorder: Implications for development of a peer navigation intervention to improve access to family planning services

Background Studies have consistently found high rates of unintended pregnancy among women with opioid use disorder (OUD). Few interventions have been developed to specifically engage and address the family planning (FP) needs of women in substance use disorder treatment. Objectives: Our goal was to collect formative qualitative data to identify the FP experiences, needs and service preferences of women receiving medications for OUD and to use these data to develop a FP education and navigation intervention that could be tested in diverse, resource-limited treatment settings. Methods: From August 2016 to April 2017, we conducted 21 guided qualitative interviews with women from two outpatient treatment clinics in Denver, Colorado. We recorded, transcribed, and coded all interviews. We then facilitated three focus groups (n = 16) from May to July 2017 to verify or challenge interview themes and to further inform the development of the FP intervention. Results: Most participants expressed ambivalence or low perceived risk regarding unintended pregnancy and desired more information about contraceptive methods. Many participants described mistrust or lack of engagement in the medical system and histories of trauma were a common barrier to seeking services. Focus group participants endorsed a peer-led FP navigation intervention and provided feedback to tailor existing FP educational materials to fit the specific needs of women in recovery. Conclusions/Importance: Results from this qualitative study suggest that women in recovery from OUD have unique, unmet FP education and service needs. These findings provide important information for the development of feasible and acceptable FP service delivery within diverse, resource-limited treatment settings and informed the development of a trauma-informed, peer-led FP education and navigation intervention that would be implemented in a subsequent phase of the study.

Long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs) as harm reduction: a qualitative study exploring views of women with histories of opioid misuse

BACKGROUND

The sharp rise in opioid use disorder (OUD) among women coupled with disproportionally high rates of unintended pregnancy have led to a four-fold increase in the number of pregnant women with OUD in the United States over the past decade. Supporting intentional family planning can have multiple health benefits and reduce harms related to OUD but requires a comprehensive understanding of women's perspectives of preventing unintended pregnancies. The purpose of this study was to comprehensively evaluate the knowledge, attitudes and experiences as they relate to seeking contraception, particularly LARCs, among women with active or recovered opioid misuse.

METHODS

In-depth interviews and focus group discussions with 36 women with current or past opioid misuse were recorded and transcribed. Transcripts were coded by ≥ 2 investigators. Themes related to contraceptive care seeking were identified and contextualized within the Health Belief Model.

RESULTS

Our analysis revealed seven interwoven themes that describe individual level factors associated with contraceptive care seeking in women with current or past opioid misuse: relationship with drugs, reproductive experiences and self-perceptions, sexual partner dynamics, access, awareness of options, healthcare attitudes/experiences, and perceptions of contraception efficacy/ side effects. Overall, perceived susceptibility and severity to unintended pregnancy varied, but most women perceived high benefits of contraception, particularly LARC. However, perceived barriers were too high for most to obtain desired contraception to support family planning intentions.

CONCLUSIONS

The individual-level factors identified should inform the design of integrated services to promote patient-centered contraceptive counseling as a form of harm reduction. Interventions should reduce barriers to contraceptive access, particularly LARCs, and establish counseling strategies that use open, non-judgmental communication, acknowledge the continuum of reproductive needs, explore perceived susceptibility to pregnancy, and utilize peer educators.

Increasing access to family planning services among women receiving medications for opioid use disorder: A pilot randomized trial examining a peer-led navigation intervention

OBJECTIVE

High rates of unintended pregnancy occur among women with opioid use disorder (OUD). OUD treatment settings may provide an ideal opportunity to address the family planning needs of patients. However, few studies have rigorously evaluated interventions designed to address family planning needs in the OUD treatment setting. This study assessed the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of a peer-led navigation intervention designed to educate and link women receiving medications for OUD to family planning services.

METHODS

The study recruited women from four OUD treatment programs in Denver, Colorado, to participate in a pilot randomized controlled trial from March 2018 to February 2019. Eligible participants were English-speaking adult females who were neither pregnant nor desiring a pregnancy and who were not using a long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) method. Participants completed a baseline survey, and the study randomized them to receive a two-session, peer-led family planning navigation intervention or usual care. The study assessed feasibility by participant engagement in the intervention. The study used follow-up self-report surveys and electronic health record data to assess intervention acceptability and intervention efficacy for the primary outcomes of a family planning visit and use of a LARC method.

RESULTS

The study enrolled 119 women who were randomized to the Sexual Health Initiative for Navigation and Empowerment (SHINE) peer-led navigation intervention (n = 56) or usual care (n = 63). The average age was 32 (SD = 6.4); 76% were receiving methadone, 24% were receiving buprenorphine and 19% reported a treatment provider had ever discussed family planning with them. Most had a previous pregnancy (82%) and of these, 93% reported an unplanned pregnancy. Among intervention participants, 93% completed the first navigation session, 90% felt that intervention topics were important, 76% indicated that the information was new, and 82% found working with a peer helpful. At six months postbaseline, significantly more (p = 0.01) intervention participants (36%) received a family planning visit compared to control participants (14%). There was no between-group difference on use of LARC methods.

CONCLUSIONS

A peer-led family planning navigation intervention was feasible to implement, acceptable to participants, and showed evidence of preliminary efficacy. This model may be an effective and potentially sustainable approach to support the family planning needs of women in treatment for OUD.

Sex and female empowerment (SAFE): A randomized trial comparing sexual health interventions for women in treatment for opioid use disorder

BACKGROUND

Unintended pregnancies are prevalent among women with opioid use disorder (OUD). The Sex and Female Empowerment (SAFE) project developed a social-cognitive, theory-driven intervention to increase acceptance of and adherence to contraceptive practices among women receiving medication for OUD (MOUD). This study evaluated the feasibility and acceptability of two SAFE interventions (Face-to-face and Computer-adapted) compared to usual care as well as their efficacy to improve contraception utilization.

METHODS

This pilot randomized trial enrolled 90 heterosexual, non-pregnant, reproductive-age women receiving MOUD. Participants were randomized into either a: SAFE Face-to-face intervention, SAFE Computer-adapted intervention, or usual care (UC) condition (n = 30 each) and followed for 6 months. Outcome measures included intervention completion, intervention satisfaction, attendance at a contraception consultation appointment, and long-acting reversible contraceptive (LARC) method receipt. A generalized linear model was used for inferential testing and to estimate least squares means (predicted probabilities for binary outcomes) and their standard errors.

RESULTS

Compared to the UC condition, both the SAFE Face-to-face and the SAFE Computer-adapted intervention had higher intervention completion [Means (Standard Errors) = 0.97 (.03) and 0.97 (.03), respectively, vs. 0.53 (.09); ps<.001], higher intervention satisfaction [Ms (SEs) = 3.7 (.11) and 3.8 (.11), respectively, vs. 3.1 (.11); ps<0.001), higher contraception consultation visit attendance [Ms(SEs) = 0.80 (.07) and 0.73 (.08) vs. 0.33 (.09); p < .001], and greater LARC receipt [Ms(SEs) = 0.77 (.08) and 0.73 (.08) vs. 0.23 (.08); p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

SAFE appears feasible and efficacious for supporting women in contraception decision-making. Integrating SAFE into women's comprehensive OUD treatment services holds promise to increase contraceptive decision-making and initiation of a chosen method.

Contraceptive Method Choices in Women With and Without Opioid Use Who Have Infants in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit and Nursery

Objective: The aim of this study was to examine whether a history of opioid use predicts tier 1 contraceptive use or plan to use in women with infants in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and nursery.

Materials and Methods: We conducted a self-administered, anonymous survey in women with infants in three local NICUs and two postpartum units from November 2018 to May 2019. Women were recruited while visiting their infants in the NICU or in their postpartum rooms. Our survey included adapted questions from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) questionnaire, the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA) Modified ASSIST Screening Tool, and ones written by our team. The questions asked about contraceptive use and opioid use. We compared the responses of women with and without a history of opioid use. We conducted a multivariable regression analysis and applied the backward elimination method to identify whether opioid use was a predictor of tier 1 contraceptive use or plan to use.

Results: A total of 122 women completed the survey. Fifty-three women (43.4%) reported opioid use in the month before pregnancy and/or during pregnancy, while 69 (56.6%) women reported no opioid use and comprised the control group. Multivariable regression analysis showed that opioid use was not associated with the use or planned use of tier 1 contraceptives (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.47; confidence interval [95% CI] 0.54–4.01). Older maternal age predicted tier 1 choice (aOR 1.12; 95% CI 1.04–1.21), while African American women were less likely to use or plan to use tier 1 contraceptives compared with white women (aOR 0.21; 95% CI 0.08–0.56).

Conclusion: A history of opioid use was not independently associated with women using or planning to use tier 1 methods, while age and race were predictors.

Contraceptive use in Appalachian women who use drugs and were recruited from rural jails

This study describes a secondary data analysis of contraceptive use across the lifetime and within the six months prior to incarceration in a sample of 400 currently incarcerated women recruited from rural, Appalachian jails, who were using drugs prior to incarceration. Phase 1 (baseline) data from an NIH funded study were used to examine rates of contraceptive use, reasons for nonuse of condoms, and correlates of condom use. Results indicate that the majority (96.5%) of respondents reported lifetime use of contraceptives, and most (70.5%) had a history of using multiple methods, with male condoms, oral contraceptive pills, and contraceptive injections being the most commonly used methods. Almost 69% of respondents reported nonuse of contraceptives within the last six months, despite high rates of involvement in risky, intimate male partnerships prior to incarceration. Contraceptive use was found to be historically acceptable in this sample, in stark contrast to rates of use within the last six months prior to incarceration, suggesting that reproductive justice-informed, social work interventions to help improve current contraceptive use are warranted as a harm-reduction approach.

Sodium valproate in pregnancy: what are the risks and should we use a shared decision-making approach?

BACKGROUND

Despite significant teratogenic risks, sodium valproate is still widely prescribed in many countries to women of childbearing age, as a mood stabiliser in bipolar disorder and also in epilepsy. The UK has recently banned valproate use in women who are not in a pregnancy prevention programme. Whilst this ruling reflects prevailing clinical practice, it also highlights an ongoing debate about when (if ever) a woman who is or could become pregnant should be allowed to choose to take valproate.

MAIN BODY

We review the benefits and harms of drugs available for bipolar disorder and epilepsy in women of childbearing age, with a particular focus on teratogenic risk. We speculate on hypothetical rare situations in which potential benefits of valproate may outweigh potential harms in such women. We also review the literature on shared decision-making - on which there is now a NICE guideline and numerous evidence-based decision tools. Drawing on previous work by experts in shared decision-making, we offer a list of 'frequently asked questions' and a matrix of options to support conversations with women about continuing or discontinuing the drug in (or in anticipation of) pregnancy. We also consider whether shared decision-making is an appropriate paradigm when considering whether to continue a teratogenic drug.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that because valproate in pregnancy remains the subject of such debate, there is scope for further research - not only into the relative efficacy and safety of alternatives to it - but also into the dynamics of communication and shared decision-making in this situation.

A Retrospective Chart Review of Contraceptive Use among Adolescents with Opioid Use Disorder

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To describe contraceptive use among female adolescents initiating outpatient treatment for opioid use disorder.

DESIGN

Retrospective chart review.

SETTING

Outpatient clinic providing medication-assisted treatment for substance use disorders to adolescents and young adults.

PARTICIPANTS

Nonpregnant female adolescents who presented for treatment from January 1, 2013 to January 31, 2016 (N = 123).

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Prescription contraceptive use at baseline and initiation of a new method within 90 days.

RESULTS

Of 123 female adolescents who presented for treatment of opioid use disorder, 113 (91.9%) reported sexual activity and 80 (65.0%) were not using prescription contraception at intake. Previous pregnancy was reported by 43 (35.0%) and 20 (16.3%) were positive for a sexually transmitted infection. Contraceptive counseling was not documented for 73 (59.3%) patients. Among patients with no prescription contraception at baseline, 56 of 80 (70.0%) initiated a method within the study window. Significant predictors (odds ratio [OR]; 95% confidence interval) of contraceptive initiation included previous pregnancy (8.6; 1.39-52.99), education of less than a high school diploma/general equivalency diploma (7.4; 1.63-33.41), and return for follow-up visit (9.8; 2.18-43.69).

CONCLUSION

Young women who presented for opioid use disorder treatment were at high risk of adverse reproductive health outcomes. Most were sexually active and not using prescription contraception. Findings underscore the need for contraceptive counseling in this patient population. Optimally, these services would be provided in conjunction with substance use treatment. Improved contraceptive counseling documentation will allow evaluation of effective contraceptive counseling strategies for adolescents with opioid use disorders and might serve to inform future interventions.

Pregnant or recently pregnant opioid users: contraception decisions, perceptions and preferences

Background

Multiple factors are linked to extremely high unintended pregnancy rates among women who use opioids, including various barriers to contraception adherence. These include patient level barriers such as lack of knowledge and education about highly effective contraception, and potential provider barriers. Using a mixed-methods framework to examine the contraception-related perceptions and preferences of opioid using women is a necessary next step to understanding this phenomenon.

Methods

A mixed-method study was conducted which included both self-report questionnaires along with a semi-structured qualitative interview of opioid-using pregnant or recently pregnant women in two drug treatment facilities in Ohio.

Results

Forty-two women completed the study. The majority of recent (75%) and total pregnancies were unintended. Male condoms were reported as the highest form of lifetime contraception used within the present sample (69%). Participants reported low lifetime use of long acting reversible contraception (LARC) (ranging from 5 to 12%). Participants preferred hormonal injections first (40%), followed by IUDs (17%). Reasons for preferences of injections and LARC were similar: not needing to remember, side effects, and long-term effectiveness.

Conclusions

Most of the study population participants stated they would utilize contraception, particularly Tier 1 LARC methods, if freely available; however, high rates of unintended pregnancy were observed in this sample. This indicates the need for contraception education, and addressing the procedural, logistical and economic barriers that may be preventing the use of LARC among this population.

Postpartum Contraceptive use and Rapid Repeat Pregnancy Among Women who use Substances

BACKGROUND

Postpartum contraception is especially important for women who use alcohol and other substances, given the risk of possible rapid repeat pregnancy and prenatal substance exposure. However, little is known about postpartum contraceptive use among women with substance use histories.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize postpartum contraceptive initiation, 24-month continuation, and rapid repeat pregnancy among women who used substances during pregnancy.

METHODS

This is a secondary analysis of 161 pregnant women who enrolled in a randomized clinical trial to treat substance use in pregnancy and completed at least one follow-up assessment. Women were eligible if they were less than 28 weeks gestation and reported alcohol or illicit drug use within the past 30 days. Participants were recruited from two hospital-based OB/GYN clinics between 2006 and 2010, and completed assessments at delivery and 3-, 12-, and 24-months postpartum.

RESULTS

Past 30-day use of any substance (not including tobacco) was 52.4%, 58.3%, and 59.8% at 3-, 12-, and 24-month follow-up, respectively. Marijuana was the most commonly reported illicit substance (as high as 48.1%). Rates of any contraceptive use were 71.3%, 66.7% and 65.3% at 3-, 12-, and 24-month follow-up, respectively; DepoProvera and condoms were the most common methods. Rapid repeat pregnancy occurred in 28% of participants by 24-month follow-up. Conclusions/Importance: Postpartum contraceptive use among substance using women was at or near 70%, which is comparable to other samples of postpartum women. Innovative efforts are needed to promote effective contraceptive use among postpartum women in general and among those who use substances in particular.

Use and knowledge of contraceptive methods by patients in two substance use disorders treatment centers in Paris

Background

Studies on contraceptive use by patients with substance use disorders (SUD) show a concerning low use of contraception. Mainly conducted in USA, they could be irrelevant to patients attending European SUD treatment centers, especially since these studies mostly investigate women suffering from social exclusion, severe material deprivation andopiates use with frequent high-risk drug use and sexual behaviors including sex trade, frequently not currently attending treatment centers. The purpose of this study is to describe contraceptive use by patients, both male and female, since contraception can not only be considered as a female problem, with severe SUD in two free clinics in Paris, France.

Methods

An anonymous self-report questionnaire was distributed to literate patients followed in two generalist substance use disorders treatment centers in hospitals of Paris, France: Espace Murger and Centre Cassini, during 5 weeks between February and March 2016.

Results

Out of the 78 respondents (with an age mean 40.7 years, in which women are represented as 48.1%, and 29.7% of them have children), 53 have had at least one sexual partner in the last 6 months. Contraception was “always” used by 55.3% of sexually active patients, “sometimes” by 19.1%, and “not” used by 25.5%. Male condoms were the main contraceptive method. The use of intrauterine devices was low, contrarily to what is observed in the French general population. However, the knowledge of contraceptive methods was common.

Conclusions

In this population, with a high prevalence of at risk sexual behavior, the use of contraceptive methods is lower than in French general population. During standard care for SUD, contraception and desire to be a parent should be discussed and patients empowered to make their own choices. Lack of knowledge does not seem to be a hindrance to the use of contraception, but other sociological, psychological, or medical factors may limit contraceptive access and long-term use, especially for the long-acting reversible contraception methods. It is necessary to further develop this reflection by discussing the individual contraceptive choices with the patients themselves to clarify the nature of these constraints and maybe provide several contraceptive methods within the SUD care settings.

Knowledge of and concerns about long-acting reversible contraception among women in medication-assisted treatment for opioid use disorder

OBJECTIVES

To assess interest in, concerns about and knowledge of long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARC) among women in medication-assisted treatment (MAT) for opioid use disorder who were at risk for unintended pregnancy.

STUDY DESIGN

Women in MAT completed a survey on contraceptive use, attitudes and knowledge, including LARC methods, as part of eligibility screening for an ongoing trial evaluating family planning interventions for this population.

RESULTS

Eighty-three women at risk for unintended pregnancy completed the survey, and a subset of 51 completed supplemental questions about implants. All participants had heard of IUDs and 75/83 (90%) had heard of implants, but only 34/83 (41%) and 14/51 (27%) reported being likely to use IUDs and implants, respectively. Thirty-five women reported they were unlikely to use IUDs, with 29/35 (83%) citing unspecified "other reasons" for this position and 24/35 (69%) endorsing concerns about side effects. Seventeen women reported they were unlikely to use implants, with 8/17 (47%) citing "other reasons" and 9/17 (53%) and 10/17 (59%) reporting concerns about insertion and removal, respectively. Participants reported they knew "a little" about LARCs, but only their knowledge of implants was limited. Only 50/83 (60%) participants were aware of the superior effectiveness of IUDs and 26/51 (51%) were aware of the superior effectiveness of implants relative to other reversible methods.

CONCLUSIONS

Participants reported relatively low interest in LARCs. Many women had unspecified reasons for not using LARCs. Participants also lacked information about LARC safety and effectiveness, especially with regard to implants.

IMPLICATIONS

Women in medication-assisted treatment for opioid use disorder are at high risk of unintended pregnancy, yet contraceptive use is low and use of less effective methods is common. Women in MAT may benefit from efforts to increase knowledge about implants and assuage concerns about their insertion and removal as well as more general efforts to improve knowledge about the relative efficacy of LARCs. Many women in MAT endorsed unspecified "other reasons" for not using LARCs, which should be explored further.