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Yuschenkoff D, Cole GA, D'Agostino J, Lock B, Cox S, Sladky KK. PHARMACOKINETICS OF TRAMADOL AND O-DESMETHYLTRAMADOL IN GIANT TORTOISES ( CHELONOIDIS VANDENBURGHI, CHELONOIDIS VICINA). J Zoo Wildl Med 2024; 55:86-91. [PMID: 38453491 DOI: 10.1638/2023-0062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of two orally administered doses of tramadol (1 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg) and its metabolite, O-desmethyltramadol (M1) in giant tortoises (Chelonoidis vandenburghi, Chelonoidis vicina). Eleven giant tortoises (C. vandenburghi, C. vicina) received two randomly assigned, oral doses of tramadol (either 1 mg/kg or 5 mg/kg), with a washout period of 3 wk between each dose. The half-life (t½) of orally administered tramadol at 1 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg was 11.9 ± 4.6 h and 13.2 ± 6.1 h, respectively. After oral administration of tramadol at 1 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg, the maximum concentration (Cmax) was 125 ± 69 ng/ml and 518 ± 411 ng/ml, respectively. There were not enough data points to determine pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters for the M1 metabolite from either dose. Tramadol administered orally to giant tortoises at both doses provided measurable plasma concentrations of tramadol for approximately 48 h with occasional transient sedation. Oral tramadol at 5 mg/kg, on average, achieves concentrations of >100 ng/ml, the reported human therapeutic threshold, for 24 h. Based on the low levels of M1 seen in this study, M1 may not be a major metabolite in this taxon.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Brad Lock
- Oklahoma City Zoo, Oklahoma City, OK 73111, USA
| | - Sherry Cox
- The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Kurt K Sladky
- Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Veterinary Medicine, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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D'Orazio J, Nelson L, Perrone J, Wightman R, Haroz R. Xylazine Adulteration of the Heroin-Fentanyl Drug Supply : A Narrative Review. Ann Intern Med 2023; 176:1370-1376. [PMID: 37812779 DOI: 10.7326/m23-2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Xylazine is an animal sedative, approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, that is commonly used in veterinary medicine and is not approved for human use. Since 2016, xylazine has consistently appeared in the illicitly manufactured fentanyl supply and has significantly increased in prevalence, likely due to its low cost, easy availability, and presumed synergistic psychoactive effect. Clinical experience along with the available pertinent research were used to review xylazine adulteration of the drug supply and provide guidance on the care of patients exposed to xylazine. This review discusses xylazine pharmacology, animal and human clinical effects, and what is known to date about care of patients experiencing acute overdose, xylazine-fentanyl withdrawal, and xylazine-associated wounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph D'Orazio
- Cooper University Healthcare, Camden, New Jersey (J.D., R.H.)
| | - Lewis Nelson
- Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey (L.N.)
| | | | - Rachel Wightman
- Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (R.W.)
| | - Rachel Haroz
- Cooper University Healthcare, Camden, New Jersey (J.D., R.H.)
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Won J, Khan ZA, Hong Y. Effects of isoflurane and xylazine on inducing cerebral ischemia by the model of middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice. Lab Anim Res 2023; 39:11. [PMID: 37264475 DOI: 10.1186/s42826-023-00163-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Preclinical ischemic stroke studies extensively utilize the intraluminal suture method of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo). General anesthesia administration is an essential step for MCAo, but anesthetic agents can lead to adverse effects causing death and making a considerable impact on inducing cerebral ischemia. The purpose of this study was to comparatively assess the effect of isoflurane and xylazine on transient cerebral ischemia in a mouse model of MCAo. Twenty animals were randomly divided into four groups: sham group (no MCAo), control group (MCAo under isoflurane, no agent till reperfusion), isoflurane group (MCAo under isoflurane continued till reperfusion), xylazine group (MCAo under isoflurane, and administration of xylazine till reperfusion). The survival rate, brain infarct volume, and neurologic deficits were studied to assess the effect of isoflurane and xylazine on the stroke model. Our results showed that the body weight showed statistically significant change before and 24 h after surgery in the control and Isoflurane groups, but no difference in the Xylazine group. Also, the survival rate, brain infarct volume, and neurologic deficits were slightly reduced in the isoflurane group at 24 h after reperfusion injury. However, the xylazine and control groups showed similar BIV and neurologic deficits. Interestingly, a high survival rate was observed in the xylazine group. Our results indicate that the modified method of inhalation anesthetics combined with xylazine can reduce the risk of mortality and develop a reproducible MCAo model with predictable brain ischemia. In addition, extended isoflurane anesthesia after MCAo is associated with the risk of mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyoung Won
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Graduate School of Inje University, 197 Inje-ro, Gimhae, Gyeong-nam, 50834, Republic of Korea
- Research Center for Aged-life Redesign (RCAR), Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea
- Biohealth Products Research Center (BPRC), Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea
| | - Zeeshan Ahmad Khan
- Research Center for Aged-life Redesign (RCAR), Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea
- Biohealth Products Research Center (BPRC), Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Healthcare Medical Science and Engineering, Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea
| | - Yonggeun Hong
- Department of Rehabilitation Science, Graduate School of Inje University, 197 Inje-ro, Gimhae, Gyeong-nam, 50834, Republic of Korea.
- Research Center for Aged-life Redesign (RCAR), Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea.
- Biohealth Products Research Center (BPRC), Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Healthcare Medical Science and Engineering, Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea.
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Marzok M, Almubarak AI, Kandeel M, El-Khodery S. Comparing the anti-nociceptive, sedative and clinicophysiological effects of epidural detomidine, detomidine-lidocaine and lidocaine in donkeys. Vet Rec 2023; 192:e2479. [PMID: 36544432 DOI: 10.1002/vetr.2479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epidural analgesia using the alpha-2 agonist detomidine (DE), alone or in combination with lidocaine (LD), is frequently employed for standing surgical procedures in horses, but its use has not been evaluated in donkeys. METHODS In a randomised controlled prospective trial, 24 healthy adult donkeys were assigned to four groups (n = 6), each receiving 40 μg/kg of DE, 0.22 mg/kg of LD, combined DE and LD (DELD) or 0.9% sterile normal saline epidurally. After epidural injection of each treatment, the onset, degree and duration of sedation and anatomical extension of anti-nociception were observed. RESULTS DE and DELD treatments resulted in complete bilateral analgesia with loss of sensation in the tail, perineum, inguinal area, chest and the caudal aspect of the upper pelvic limb, and extended distally to the dorsal metatarsal area. DE and DELD resulted in a significantly (p < 0.05) longer duration of anti-nociception (110 ± 15.4 min and 141.6 ± 14.7 min, respectively) than LD (75.8 ± 4.9 min). The DELD duration of sedation was significantly (p < 0.05) longer than the DE duration (118.3 ± 19.4 min and 108.3 ± 7.5 min, respectively). LIMITATION The current study's main limitation is using only one dose of DE. CONCLUSION DE and DELD produced a very effective, safe and acceptable sedative and analgesic effect in the perineal and inguinal regions of donkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Marzok
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
| | - Adel I Almubarak
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mahmoud Kandeel
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
| | - Sabry El-Khodery
- Department of Internal Medicine, Infectious Diseases and Fish Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Manosura, Egypt
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Ishikawa Y, Sakai DM, Im JS, Zhang S, Reed RA, Quandt JE, Baldo CF, Walters B, Barletta M. Antinociceptive effects of bupivacaine injected within the internal abdominis rectus sheath in standing healthy horses. Vet Anaesth Analg 2023; 50:294-301. [PMID: 37024406 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2023.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate a regional anesthetic technique for blocking the abdominal midline in horses. STUDY DESIGN Anatomical description and prospective, crossover, placebo-controlled, blinded study. ANIMALS Adult horses; two cadavers, six healthy animals. METHODS In stage 1, 0.5% methylene blue with 0.25% bupivacaine (0.5 mL kg-1) was injected using ultrasonography into the internal rectus abdominis sheath (RAS) of two cadavers with a one-point or two-point technique. The dye spread was described after the dissection of the abdomens. In stage 2, each horse was injected with 1 mL kg-1 of 0.9% NaCl (treatment PT) or 0.2% bupivacaine (treatment BT) using a two-point technique. The abdominal midline mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT) was measured with a 1 mm blunted probe tip and results analyzed with mixed-effect anova. Signs of pelvic limb weakness were recorded. RESULTS The cadaver dissections showed staining of the ventral branches from the eleventh thoracic (T11) to the second lumbar (L2) nerve with the one-point technique and T9-L2 with the two-point technique. Baseline MNTs were, mean ± standard deviation, 12.6 ± 1.6 N and 12.4 ± 2.4 N in treatments PT and BT, respectively. MNT increased to 18.9 ± 5.8 N (p = 0.010) at 30 minutes, and MNT was between 9.4 ± 2.0 and 15.3 ± 3.4 N from 1 to 8 hours (p > 0.521) in treatment PT. MNTs in treatment BT were 21.1 ± 5.9 to 25.0 ± 0.1 N from 30 minutes to 8 hours (p < 0.001). MNTs after the RAS injections were higher in treatment BT than PT (p = 0.007). No pelvic limb weakness was observed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Antinociception of at least 8 hours without pelvic limb weakness was observed in the abdominal midline in standing horses after the RAS block. Further investigations are necessary to evaluate suitability for ventral celiotomies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yushun Ishikawa
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Daniel M Sakai
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Jessica Sy Im
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Shufan Zhang
- Institute of Bioinformatics, Franklin College of Arts and Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Rachel A Reed
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Jane E Quandt
- Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Caroline F Baldo
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
| | - Brian Walters
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA
| | - Michele Barletta
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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Kim A, Sasaki N, Lee I, Lee K, Seo JP. Analgesic and cardiopulmonary effects of premedication with tramadol in calves anesthetized with the infusion of guaifenesin and thiamylal. J Vet Med Sci 2021; 83:1988-1993. [PMID: 34719606 PMCID: PMC8762425 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.21-0196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the analgesic and cardiopulmonary effects of intravenous (IV) tramadol during general intravenous anesthesia in calves. Calves were premedicated with diazepam (0.2 mg/kg, IV) with tramadol (2 mg/kg, IV) (group T) or saline (group S). Anesthesia was induced by thiamylal sodium (4 mg/kg, IV) and maintained with an infusion (2 ml/kg/hr) of 5% guaifenesin containing thiamylal sodium (2 mg/ml). Additional thiamylal sodium (1~2 mg/kg, IV) was administered when interference from the calves was observed during surgery. The total counts of additional thiamylal sodium administration, analgesia score using a visual analog scale, recovery time, and cardiopulmonary function in the different groups were assessed and compared. Group T showed significantly fewer counts of additional drug administration and a significantly higher analgesia score. Tramadol may provide adequate analgesia with minimal cardiopulmonary changes in calves during general anesthesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahram Kim
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University
| | - Naoki Sasaki
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University
| | - Inhyung Lee
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University
| | - Kyuyoung Lee
- Center of Animal Disease Modelling and Surveillance, The Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine University of California, Davis
| | - Jong-Pil Seo
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Veterinary Medical Research Institute, Jeju National University
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de Oliveira AR, Gozalo-Marcilla M, Ringer SK, Schauvliege S, Fonseca MW, Trindade PHE, Puoli Filho JNP, Luna SPL. Development, Validation, and Reliability of a Sedation Scale in Horses (EquiSed). Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:611729. [PMID: 33665216 PMCID: PMC7921322 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.611729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The lack of standardization of sedation scales in horses limits the reproducibility between different studies. This prospective, randomized, blinded, horizontal and controlled trial aimed to validate a scale for sedation in horses (EquiSed). Seven horses were treated with intravenous detomidine in low/high doses alone (DL 2.5 μg/kg + 6.25 μg/kg/h; DH 5 μg/kg +12.5 μg/kg/h) or associated with methadone (DLM and DHM, 0.2 mg/kg + 0.05 mg/kg/h) and with low (ACPL 0.02 mg/kg) or high (ACPH 0.09 mg/kg) doses of acepromazine alone. Horses were filmed at (i) baseline (ii) peak, (iii) intermediate, and (iv) end of sedation immediately before auditory, visual and pressure stimuli were applied and postural instability evaluated for another study. Videos were randomized and blindly evaluated by four evaluators in two phases with 1-month interval. Intra- and interobserver reliability of the sum of EquiSed (Intraclass correlation coefficient) ranged between 0.84-0.94 and 0.45-0.88, respectively. The criterion validity was endorsed by the high Spearman correlation between the EquiSed and visual analog (0.77), numerical rating (0.76), and simple descriptive scales (0.70), and average correlation with head height above the ground (HHAG) (-0.52). The Friedman test confirmed the EquiSed responsiveness over time. The principal component analysis showed that all items of the scale had a load factor ≥ 0.50. The item-total Spearman correlation for all items ranged from 0.3 to 0.5, and the internal consistency was good (Cronbach's α = 0.73). The area under the curve of EquiSed HHAG as a predictive diagnostic measure was 0.88. The sensitivity of the EquiSed calculated according to the cut-off point (score 7 of the sum of the EquiSed) determined by the receiver operating characteristic curve, was 96% and specificity was 83%. EquiSed has good intra- and interobserver reliabilities and is valid to evaluate tranquilization and sedation in horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Rodrigues de Oliveira
- Department of Veterinary Surgery and Animal Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, São Paulo State University Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Miguel Gozalo-Marcilla
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Simone Katja Ringer
- Section Anaesthesiology, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stijn Schauvliege
- Department of Surgery and Anaesthesia of Domestic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mariana Werneck Fonseca
- Department of Veterinary Surgery and Animal Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, São Paulo State University Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Pedro Henrique Esteves Trindade
- Department of Veterinary Surgery and Animal Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, São Paulo State University Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
| | - José Nicolau Prospero Puoli Filho
- Department of Veterinary Surgery and Animal Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, São Paulo State University Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Stelio Pacca Loureiro Luna
- Department of Veterinary Surgery and Animal Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, São Paulo State University Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
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Kim A, Sasaki N, Lee I, Seo JP. Comparison of intraoperative cardiorespiratory and behavioral responses to medetomidine combined with tramadol or butorphanol during standing laparoscopic ovariectomy in horses. J Vet Med Sci 2021; 83:643-647. [PMID: 33583912 PMCID: PMC8111346 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.20-0397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess the cardiorespiratory and behavioral responses to
the combination of medetomidine and tramadol (M-T) or butorphanol (M-B) in standing
laparoscopic ovariectomy in horses. One ovary was removed under M-T and the contralateral
ovary was removed under M-B with at least 4 weeks between operations at random. Horses
were sedated using intravenous medetomidine (5 µg/kg) followed by tramadol (1 mg/kg) or
butorphanol (10 µg/kg) after 5 min. Sedation was maintained through the repeated injection
of medetomidine (1 µg/kg) and tramadol (0.4 mg/kg) or medetomidine (1 µg/kg) and
butorphanol (4 µg/kg) every 15 min. Cardiorespiratory function and behavioral responses,
including, sedation, ataxia, and analgesia, were assessed during the surgery. There were
no significant differences in cardiorespiratory values and sedation and analgesia scores
between M-T and M-B. Ataxia scores were significantly lower in M-T than in M-B. This
result suggests that M-T could maintain smooth and stable standing surgery with minimal
cardiorespiratory changes in horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahram Kim
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Naoki Sasaki
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
| | - Inhyung Lee
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Pil Seo
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea
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Khalil AH, Abd Al-Galil AS, Sabek AA, Zeineldin MM, Abo-Kora SY. Sedative, analgesic, behavioral and clinical effects of intravenous nalbuphine-xylazine combination in camels ( Camelus dromedarius). J Vet Sci 2020; 20:e55. [PMID: 31565898 PMCID: PMC6769325 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2019.20.e55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 07/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the sedative, analgesic, behavioral, and clinical effects of a combination of xylazine (XY) and nalbuphine-xylazine (NA-XY) in camels. A total of five adult camels were used in a prospective randomized cross-over design with a wash out period of two weeks. Camels were allocated randomly to two treatment groups: the XY group (xylazine, 1.1mL/100 kg IV) and the NA-XY group (xylazine, 1.1mL/100 kg IV and nalbuphine, 1 mg/kg IV). The sedative, analgesic, behavioral, and clinical effects of XY and NA-XY combination were evaluated prior to administration (baseline) and at 5, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, and 120 minutes post-administration. The results showed that the NA-XY combination accelerates the onset of sedation and analgesia and prolongs the durations of both sedation (p < 0.001) and analgesia (p < 0.01). The behavioral parameters showed higher scores with a NA-XY combination than xylazine alone. Although a XY injection resulted in a significant decline in the heart and respiratory rate, the NA-XY combination group revealed a non-significant change in both clinical parameters compared to the baseline. In conclusion, the use of a NA-XY combination in camels improved the sedative and analgesic onset and duration with an improved outcome in the behavioral scores, as well as in both the heart and respiratory rates compared to XY alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed H Khalil
- Department of Veterinary Surgery, Anaesthesiology and Radiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Kalyobiya 13736, Egypt
| | - Atef S Abd Al-Galil
- Department of Veterinary Surgery, Anaesthesiology and Radiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Menofiya University, Shebin El-Kom, Egypt
| | - Ahmed A Sabek
- Department of Veterinary Hygiene and Management, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Kalyobiya 13736, Egypt.
| | - Mohamed M Zeineldin
- Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Kalyobiya 13736, Egypt
| | - Seham Y Abo-Kora
- Department of pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Benha University, Moshtohor, Kalyobiya 13736, Egypt
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Effects of Tiletamine-xylazine-tramadol Combination and its Specific Antagonist on AMPK in the Brain of Rats. J Vet Res 2019; 63:285-292. [PMID: 31276069 PMCID: PMC6598187 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2019-0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Tiletamine-xylazine-tramadol (XFM) has few side effects and can provide good sedation and analgesia. Adenosine 5’-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) can attenuate trigeminal neuralgia. The study aimed to investigate the effects of XFM and its specific antagonist on AMPK in different regions of the brain. Material and Methods A model of XFM in the rat was established. A total of 72 Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into three equally sized groups: XFM anaesthesia (M group), antagonist (W group), and XFM with antagonist interactive groups (MW group). Eighteen SD rats were in the control group and were injected intraperitoneally with saline (C group). The rats were sacrificed and the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, thalamus, and brain stem were immediately separated, in order to detect AMPKα mRNA expression by quantitative PCR. Results XFM was able to increase the mRNA expression of AMPKα1 and AMPKα2 in all brain regions, and the antagonist caused the opposite effect, although the effects of XFM could not be completely reversed in some areas. Conclusion XFM can influence the expression of AMPK in the central nervous system of the rat, which can provide a reference for the future development of anaesthetics for animals.
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Azari O, Seyyedin S, Molaei MM, Hassibi H, Madani BH. Analgesic and sedative effects of caudal epidural tramadol in dromedary camels. BULGARIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 2019. [DOI: 10.15547/bjvm.2052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the analgesic efficacy of caudal epidural administration of tramadol in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). A total of 10 dromedary camels of both sexes were selected and randomly assigned to one of two groups to receive epidurally either 1 mg/kg or 2 mg/kg of tramadol hydrochloride. The injections were made into the epidural space at first intercoccygeal junction. Using a pinprick method, analgesia was tested. Duration and onset of complete perineal analgesia were determined. Ataxia and sedation were also assessed and recorded. Clinical parameters including heart rate, respiratory rate and rectal temperature were measured. The lower dose (1 mg/kg) of tramadol induced analgesia only in the tail but the higher dose produced complete antinociception in the tail, anus and perineum. Analgesia of the hind limbs was not achieved after either doses of tramadol. The mean times to onset and duration of complete analgesia in camels receiving epidural tramadol at a dose of 2 mg/kg were 22±2.55 min and 65±8.66 min, respectively. Various degrees of ataxia occurred in all camels. Mild to deep sedation was observed following both doses. Mean heart rate, respiratory rate, and rectal temperature tended to increase for the first 15 or 30 min after injection. Based on the results of this study, analgesic effects of caudal epidural tramadol were dose dependent. Epidural tramadol at a dose of 2 mg/kg would provide suitable postoperative analgesia for various manipulations in the tail, anus and perineum in standing dromedary camels.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - E. J. Love
- School of Veterinary Sciences University of Bristol Bristol UK
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13
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Knych HK, Stanley SD, McKemie DS, Arthur RM, Kass PH. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics of xylazine administered to exercised thoroughbred horses. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:713-720. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Heather K. Knych
- K.L. Maddy Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
- Department of Veterinary Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
| | - Scott D. Stanley
- K.L. Maddy Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
- Department of Veterinary Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
| | - Daniel S. McKemie
- K.L. Maddy Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis CA USA
| | - Rick M. Arthur
- School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California, Davis, 1 Garrod Drive; Davis CA USA
| | - Phil H. Kass
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine; University of California; Davis USA
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Tramadol state-dependent memory: involvement of dorsal hippocampal muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Behav Pharmacol 2016; 27:470-8. [DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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15
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Xylazine Activates Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase Pathway in the Central Nervous System of Rats. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153169. [PMID: 27049320 PMCID: PMC4822969 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Xylazine is a potent analgesic extensively used in veterinary and animal experimentation. Evidence exists that the analgesic effect can be inhibited using adenosine 5'-monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK) inhibitors. Considering this idea, the aim of this study was to investigate whether the AMPK signaling pathway is involved in the central analgesic mechanism of xylazine in the rat. Xylazine was administrated via the intraperitoneal route. Sprague-Dawley rats were sacrificed and the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, thalamus and brainstem were collected for determination of liver kinase B1 (LKB1) and AMPKα mRNA expression using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and phosphorylated LKB1 and AMPKα levels using western blot. The results of our study showed that compared with the control group, xylazine induced significant increases in AMPK activity in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, thalamus and cerebellum after rats received xylazine (P < 0.01). Increased AMPK activities were accompanied with increased phosphorylation levels of LKB1 in corresponding regions of rats. The protein levels of phosphorylated LKB1 and AMPKα in these regions returned or tended to return to control group levels. However, in the brainstem, phosphorylated LKB1 and AMPKα protein levels were decreased by xylazine compared with the control (P < 0.05). In conclusion, our data indicates that xylazine alters the activities of LKB1 and AMPK in the central nervous system of rats, which suggests that xylazine affects the regulatory signaling pathway of the analgesic mechanism in the rat brain.
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Rettig MJ, Leelamankong P, Rungsri P, Lischer CJ. Effect of sedation on fore- and hindlimb lameness evaluation using body-mounted inertial sensors. Equine Vet J 2015; 48:603-7. [DOI: 10.1111/evj.12463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 05/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. J. Rettig
- Equine Clinic at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Free University of Berlin; Germany
| | - P. Leelamankong
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Chiang Mai University; Thailand
| | - P. Rungsri
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Chiang Mai University; Thailand
| | - C. J. Lischer
- Equine Clinic at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Free University of Berlin; Germany
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17
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Yongming P, Zhaowei C, Yichao M, Keyan Z, Liang C, Fangming C, Xiaoping X, Quanxin M, Minli C. Involvement of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors in cardiac and vascular remodeling in a novel minipig model of insulin resistance and atherosclerosis induced by consumption of a high-fat/cholesterol diet. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2015; 14:6. [PMID: 25592139 PMCID: PMC4300051 DOI: 10.1186/s12933-014-0165-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A long-term high-fat/cholesterol (HFC) diet leads to insulin resistance (IR), which is associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis (AS), cardiac sympathovagal imbalance, and cardiac dysfunction. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and nuclear factor ĸB (NF-κB) are involved in the development of IR-AS. Thus, we elucidated the pathological molecular mechanism of IR-AS by feeding an HFC diet to Tibetan minipigs to induce IR and AS. Methods Male Tibetan minipigs were fed either a normal diet or an HFC diet for 24 weeks. Thereafter, the minipigs were tested for physiological and biochemical blood indices, blood pressure, cardiac function, glucose tolerance, heart rate variability (HRV), and PPAR-associated gene and protein expression levels. Results HFC-fed minipigs exhibited IR through increased body weight, fasting blood glucose levels, plasma cholesterol and its composition, and insulin and free fatty acid (FFA) levels; decreased insulin sensitivity; impaired glucose tolerance; and hypertension. Increased C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, cardiac dysfunction, depressed HRV, and the up-regulation of PPAR expression in the abdominal aorta concomitant with down-regulation in the heart tissue were observed in HFC-fed minipigs. Furthermore, the levels of NF-κBp65, IL-1β, TNF-α, MCP-1, VCAM-1, ICAM-1, MMP-9, and CRP proteins were also significantly increased. Conclusions These data suggest that HFC-fed Tibetan minipigs develop IR and AS and that PPARs are involved in cardiovascular remodeling and impaired function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Yongming
- Experimental Animal Research Center, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
| | - Cai Zhaowei
- Experimental Animal Research Center, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
| | - Ma Yichao
- Experimental Animal Research Center, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
| | - Zhu Keyan
- Experimental Animal Research Center, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
| | - Chen Liang
- Experimental Animal Research Center, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
| | - Chen Fangming
- Experimental Animal Research Center, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
| | - Xu Xiaoping
- Experimental Animal Research Center, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
| | - Ma Quanxin
- Experimental Animal Research Center, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
| | - Chen Minli
- Experimental Animal Research Center, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, No. 548 Binwen Road, Binjiang District, Hangzhou, 310053, China.
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18
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Carregaro AB, Freitas GC, Ribeiro MH, Xavier NV, Dória RGS. Physiological and analgesic effects of continuous-rate infusion of morphine, butorphanol, tramadol or methadone in horses with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced carpal synovitis. BMC Vet Res 2014; 10:966. [PMID: 25528353 PMCID: PMC4297404 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-014-0299-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Continuous-rate infusion (CRI) of drugs results in more stable plasma drug concentrations than administration of intermittent boluses, thus providing greater stability of physiological parameters. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physiologic and analgesic effects of the administration of morphine, butorphanol, tramadol or methadone by CRI in horses with induced synovitis of the radiocarpal joint. RESULTS Increased values of cardiorespiratory parameters and body temperature were observed in all groups after initiation of opioid administration, and these increases were sustained throughout the CRI period. Morphine, butorphanol and methadone each caused a reduction in gut sounds, and this effect was greatest in animals that received morphine. Administration of morphine or methadone reduced the degree of lameness after the end of intravenous infusion. Administration of tramadol did not alter the degree of lameness in the animals. CONCLUSIONS CRI of morphine or methadone, but not butorphanol or tramadol, provided analgesia in horses with carpal synovitis. All of these opioids increased cardiovascular and respiratory parameters and reduced gut sounds during CRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriano B Carregaro
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of São Paulo, Duque de Caxias Norte ave 225, Pirassununga, ZIP 13635-900, SP, Brazil.
| | - Gabrielle C Freitas
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of South Border, Realeza, PR, Brazil.
| | - Martina H Ribeiro
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of São Paulo, Duque de Caxias Norte ave 225, Pirassununga, ZIP 13635-900, SP, Brazil.
| | - Nathalia V Xavier
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of São Paulo, Duque de Caxias Norte ave 225, Pirassununga, ZIP 13635-900, SP, Brazil.
| | - Renata G S Dória
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of São Paulo, Duque de Caxias Norte ave 225, Pirassununga, ZIP 13635-900, SP, Brazil.
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Costa GL, Cristarella S, Quartuccio M, Interlandi C. Anti-nociceptive and sedative effects of romifidine, tramadol and their combination administered intravenously slowly in ponies. Vet Anaesth Analg 2014; 42:220-5. [PMID: 25039663 DOI: 10.1111/vaa.12210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the anti-nociceptive and sedative effects of slow intravenous (IV) injection of tramadol, romifidine, or a combination of both drugs in ponies. STUDY DESIGN Within-subject blinded. ANIMALS Twenty ponies (seven male, 13 female, weighing mean ± SD 268.0 ± 128 kg). METHODS On separate occasions, each pony received one of the following three treatments IV; romifidine 50 μg kg(-) (R) tramadol 3 mg kg(-1) given over 15 minutes (T) or tramadol 3 mg kg(-1) followed by romifidine 50 μg kg(-1) (RT). Physiologic parameters and caecal borborygmi (CB) were measured and sedation and response to electrical stimulation of the coronary band assessed before and up to 120 minutes following drugs administration. Results were analyzed using the Friedman's test and 2 way anova as relevant. RESULTS When compared to baseline, heart (HR, beats minute(-1) ) and respiratory rates (fR , breaths minute(-1) ) increased with treatment T (highest mean ± SD, HR 43 ± 1; fR 33 ± 2) and decreased with R (lowest HR 29 ± 1 and fR 10 ± 4) and RT (lowest HR 32 ± 1 and fR 9 ± 3). There were no changes in other measured physiological variables. The height of head from the ground was lower following treatments R and TR than T. There was slight ataxia with all three treatments. No excitatory behavioural effects were observed. The response to electrical stimulation was reduced for a prolonged period relative to baseline following all three treatments, the effect being significantly greatest with treatment RT. CONCLUSION Tramadol combined with romifidine at the stated doses proved an effective sedative and anti-nociceptive combination in ponies, with no unacceptable behavioural or physiologic side effects. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Slow controlled administration of tramadol should reduce the occurrence of adverse behavioural side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna L Costa
- Department of Experimental Sciences and Applied Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine Veterinary, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
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Di Salvo A, Della Rocca G, Bazzica C, Giontella A, Cagnardi P, Nannarone S. A pharmacokinetic/clinical approach to postulate a local action of intra-articular xylazine administration in the horse: a preliminary study. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2014; 37:464-71. [DOI: 10.1111/jvp.12110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Di Salvo
- Department of Pathology, Diagnostic and Veterinary Clinic; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; University of Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - G. Della Rocca
- Department of Pathology, Diagnostic and Veterinary Clinic; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; University of Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - C. Bazzica
- Department of Pathology, Diagnostic and Veterinary Clinic; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; University of Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - A. Giontella
- Department of Pathology, Diagnostic and Veterinary Clinic; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; University of Perugia; Perugia Italy
| | - P. Cagnardi
- Dip. Scienze Veterinarie per la Salute, la Produzione Animale e la Sicurezza Alimentare; Università degli Studi di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - S. Nannarone
- Department of Pathology, Diagnostic and Veterinary Clinic; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; University of Perugia; Perugia Italy
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Intravenous Tramadol Injection has no Antinociceptive Effect in Horses Undergoing Electrical and Thermal Stimuli. J Equine Vet Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2012.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Lorena SERS, Luna SPL, Lascelles BDX, Corrente JE. Attitude of Brazilian veterinarians in the recognition and treatment of pain in horses and cattle. Vet Anaesth Analg 2013; 40:410-8. [PMID: 23461405 DOI: 10.1111/vaa.12025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2010] [Accepted: 08/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to assess the use of analgesics, describe the attitudes of Brazilian veterinarians towards pain relief in horses and cattle and evaluate the differences due to gender, year of graduation and type of practice. STUDY DESIGN Prospective survey. METHODS Questionnaires were sent to 1000 large animal veterinarians by mail, internet and delivered in person during national meetings. The survey investigated the attitudes of Brazilian veterinarians to the recognition and treatment of pain in large animals and consisted of sections asking about demographic data, use of analgesic drugs, attitudes to pain relief and to the assessment of pain. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze frequencies. Simple post hoc comparisons were performed using the chi-square test. RESULTS Eight hundred questionnaires were collected, but 87 were discarded because they were incomplete or blank. The opioid of choice for use in large animals was butorphanol (43.4%) followed by tramadol (39%). Flunixin (83.2%) and ketoprofen (67.6%) were the most frequently used NSAIDs by Brazilian veterinarians. Respondents indicated that horses received preoperative analgesics for laparotomy more frequently (72.9%) than cattle (58.5%). The most frequently administered preoperative drugs for laparotomy in horses were flunixin (38.4%) and xylazine (23.6%), whereas the preoperative drugs for the same surgical procedure in cattle were xylazine (31.8%) and the local administration of lidocaine (48%). Fracture repair was considered the most painful surgical procedure for both species. Most veterinarians (84.1%) believed that their knowledge in this area was not adequate. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Although these Brazilian veterinarians thought that their knowledge on recognition and treatment of pain was not adequate, the use of analgesic in large animals was similar in Brazil to that reported in other countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sílvia E R S Lorena
- Department of Veterinary Surgery and Anaesthesiology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, UNESP - Univ Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, Brazil
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Romero TRL, Pacheco DDF, Duarte IDG. Xylazine induced central antinociception mediated by endogenous opioids and μ-opioid receptor, but not δ-or κ-opioid receptors. Brain Res 2013; 1506:58-63. [PMID: 23485547 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Revised: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 02/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Endogenous opioids have been implicated in compound-induced antinociception, and our group previously suggested that xylazine induces peripheral antinociception by releasing endogenous opioids that act on their respective receptors. In this study, we investigated the involvement of endogenous opioids in α2-adrenoceptor agonist xylazine-induced central antinociception. The nociceptive threshold for thermal stimulation was measured in Swiss mice using the tail-flick test. The drugs were administered via the intracerebroventricular route. Probabilities less than 5% (p<0.05) were considered to be statistically significant (ANOVA/Bonferroni's test). Our results demonstrated that opioid receptor antagonist naloxone and μ-opioid receptor antagonist clocinnamox, but not δ-opioid receptor antagonist naltrindole and κ-opioid receptor antagonist nor-binaltorphimine, antagonized xylazine-induced central antinociception. These data provide evidence for the involvement of endogenous opioids and μ-opioid receptors in xylazine-induced central antinociception. In contrast, δ- and κ-opioid receptors do not appear to be involved in this effect. The results contribute to a greater understanding of the central antinociceptive mechanisms of a drug widely used in veterinary therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago Roberto Lima Romero
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, UFMG, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, CEP 31.270.100, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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