Why (multi)targeting of cyclin-dependent kinases is a promising therapeutic option for hormone-positive breast cancer and beyond

Exploring the Genetic Orchestra of Cancer: The Interplay Between Oncogenes and Tumor-Suppressor Genes

Cancer is complex because of the critical imbalance in genetic regulation as characterized by both the overexpression of oncogenes (OGs), mainly through mutations, amplifications, and translocations, and the inactivation of tumor-suppressor genes (TSGs), which entail the preservation of genomic integrity by inducing apoptosis to counter the malignant growth. Reviewing the intricate molecular interplay between OGs and TSGs draws attention to their cell cycle, apoptosis, and cancer metabolism regulation. In the present review, we discuss seminal discoveries, such as Knudson's two-hit hypothesis, which framed the field's understanding of cancer genetics, leading to the next breakthroughs with next-generation sequencing and epigenetic profiling, revealing novel insights into OG and TSG dysregulation with opportunities for targeted therapy. The key pathways, such as MAPK/ERK, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, and Wnt/β-catenin, are presented in the context of tumor progression. Importantly, we further highlighted the advances in therapeutic strategies, including inhibitors of KRAS and MYC and restoration of TSG function, despite which mechanisms of resistance and tumor heterogeneity pose daunting challenges. A high-level understanding of interactions between OG-TSGs forms the basis for effective, personalized cancer treatment-something to strive for in better clinical outcomes. This synthesis should integrate foundational biology with translation and, in this case, contribute to the ongoing effort against cancer.

RNA-binding protein CELF2 inhibits breast cancer cell invasion and angiogenesis by downregulating NFATc1

Breast cancer constitutes a major cause of morbidity and mortality among women in China and worldwide. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether CUGBP Elav-like family member 2 (CELF2) could inhibit breast cancer cell invasion and angiogenesis by downregulating nuclear factor of activated T cells 1 (NFATc1) expression. The expression of CELF2 and NFATc1 in breast cancer cells and tissues was detected by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR analysis. H&E staining was used to assess the number of microvessels in tumor tissue. The expression of proteins associated with invasion and angiogenesis and NFATc1 in tumor tissues and transfected cells was examined by western blotting. RNA pull-down assay was used to verify the interaction between CELF2 and NFATc1. Cell proliferation, invasion and tube-forming ability was analyzed using Cell Counting Kit-8, Transwell and HUVEC tube formation assays, respectively. CELF2 expression was found to be decreased in breast cancer cells, whereas CELF2 overexpression suppressed the proliferation and invasion of breast cancer cells and inhibited tumor growth and angiogenesis. Furthermore, CELF2 overexpression decreased the expression of N-cadherin (N-cad), CD34 and NFATc1 in tumor tissues, whereas NEAFc1 overexpression increased the expression of N-cad and NFATc1 in MCF cells transfected with OverExp-CELF2. CELF2 was found to be inversely associated with NFATc1, and NFATc1 overexpression reversed the effects of CELF2 overexpression. In conclusion, the findings of the present study demonstrated that CELF2 may inhibit breast cancer cell invasion and angiogenesis by downregulating NFATc1.

Pathological Maintenance and Evolution of Breast Cancer: The Convergence of Irreversible Biological Actions of ER Alpha

Estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) is a modulator of breast cancer maintenance and evolution. Hence, analysis of underlying mechanisms by which ERα operates is of importance for the improvement of the hormonal therapy of the disease. This review focuses on the irreversible character of the mechanism of action of ERα, which also concerns other members of the steroid hormones receptors family. ERα moves in permanence between targets localized especially at the chromatin level to accomplish gene transcriptions imposed by the estrogenic ligands and specific antagonists. Receptor association as at the plasma membrane, where it interacts with other recruitment sites, extends its regulatory potency to growth factors and related peptides through activation of signal transductions pathways. If the latter procedure is suitable for the transcriptions in which the receptor operates as a coregulator of another transcription factor, it is of marginal influence with regard to the direct estrogenic regulation procedure, especially in the context of the present review. Irreversibility of the successive steps of the underlying transcription cycle guarantees maintenance of homeostasis and evolution according to vital necessities. To justify this statement, reported data are essentially described in a holistic view rather than in the context of exhaustive analysis of a molecular event contributing to a specific function as well as in a complementary perspective to elaborate new therapeutic approaches with antagonistic potencies against those tumors promoting ERα properties.

Protein Kinase Targets in Breast Cancer

With 1.67 million new cases and 522,000 deaths in the year 2012, breast cancer is the most common type of diagnosed malignancy and the second leading cause of cancer death in women around the world. Despite the success of screening programs and the development of adjuvant therapies, a significant percentage of breast cancer patients will suffer a metastatic disease that, to this day, remains incurable and justifies the research of new therapies to improve their life expectancy. Among the new therapies that have been developed in recent years, the emergence of targeted therapies has been a milestone in the fight against cancer. Over the past decade, many studies have shown a causal role of protein kinase dysregulations or mutations in different human diseases, including cancer. Along these lines, cancer research has demonstrated a key role of many protein kinases during human tumorigenesis and cancer progression, turning these molecules into valid candidates for new targeted therapies. The subsequent discovery and introduction in 2001 of the kinase inhibitor imatinib, as a targeted treatment for chronic myelogenous leukemia, revolutionized cancer genetic pathways research, and lead to the development of multiple small-molecule kinase inhibitors against various malignancies, including breast cancer. In this review, we analyze studies published to date about novel small-molecule kinase inhibitors and evaluate if they would be useful to develop new treatment strategies for breast cancer patients.

Investigational drugs targeting cyclin-dependent kinases for the treatment of cancer: an update on recent findings (2013-2016)

INTRODUCTION

Cell cycle and gene transcription are under the control of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), whose activity depends on the binding with cyclins. Deregulated CDK activities have been reported in a majority of human cancers, representing potential therapeutic targets.

AREAS COVERED

This review provides preclinical and clinical (phase I/II) updates of promising therapeutic compounds targeting CDKs published between 2013 and 2016 EXPERT OPINION: First generation pan-CDK inhibitors showed marked toxicity in clinical trials and most compounds were discontinued. Despite their failure was ascribed also to inadequate patient selection rules, novel pan-CDK inhibitors have entered clinical trials with still poorly defined selection strategies. The most interesting results have been obtained with dual CDK4/6 inhibitors and through a more accurate evaluation of predictive biomarkers, suggesting the usefulness of CDK inhibitors for personalized treatment. The increased knowledge on the roles of CDKs in cell cycle and gene transcription suggests to review also the anticancer potential of first generation CDK inhibitors by defining more appropriate rules for patients engagement. Recent findings has highlighted CDK8 as a novel target for cancer treatment. Indeed some biomarkers for CDK8 inhibition sensitivity have already been proposed. CDK8 inhibition is also supposed to prevent cancer metastasis.

Recent progress of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors as potential anticancer agents

Deregulation of the cell cycle is a common feature in human cancer. The inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), which play a crucial role in control of the cell cycle, has always been one of the most promising areas in cancer chemotherapy. This review first summarizes the biology of CDKs and then focuses on the recent advances in both broad-range and selective CDK inhibitors during the last 5 years. The design rationale, structural optimization and structure–activity relationships analysis of these small molecules have been discussed in detail and the key interactions with the amino-acid residues of the most important compounds are highlighted. Future perspectives for CDKs inhibitors will be defined in the development of highly selective CDK inhibitors, an accurate knowledge of gene control mechanism and further predictive biomarker research.